Unit 3 grade 10

3.2 The Making of Modern Ethiopian State 1855-1913

Overview

The making of modern Ethiopia involved the unification of regions and principalities found in northern
and north-central parts and territorial expansion into the southern half of the country.

1. Reign of Tewodros II (1855–1868)

 Rise to Power: The first emperor who attempted to unify the country was Kassa Hailu of Quara,
who took the throne name Tewodros II.

Kassa became prominent when he was serving his half−brother, Dejjazmach Kenfu of Dambya.

He fought against the Egyptians at Wad Kaltabu in 1837 (victory) and Dabarqi in 1848 (defeated due to
Egyptians’ superior military organization).

 End of Zamana Mesafint: Kassa fought against the Yajju nobles and regional lords.

Defeated Dajjach Goshu Zewde of Gojjam at Gur Amba (Nov 27, 1852).

Defeated Birru Aligaz at Gorgora Bichegn (April 12, 1853).

Defeated Ras Ali of Yajju Dynasty at Ayshal (29 June 1853). This battle symbolized the end of Zamana
Mesafint.

Defeated Dajjach Wube of Semen and Tigray at Deresge (8 February 1855).

 Coronation: Kassa Haylu was anointed by Abuna Salama at Deresge Mariam on 9 February 1855
and became Tewodros II, King of Kings of Ethiopia.

Vision and Unification:

He envisioned establishing a country that was territorially united and militarily self-dependent and
stronger.

 Wallo Campaign: Started in March 1855; capture of Maqdala on 12 September 1855.

 Shawa Campaign: Concluded after the Shawan force was defeated at the Battle of Barakat in
November 1855.

Modernization and Reforms:

 Military: Introduced military titles like Yasr Aleqa (commander of ten), Yamsa Aleka
(commander of the hundred), and Yeshi Aleqa (commander of the thousand). Replaced regional
armies with a salaried national army.
  Manufacturing: Established an arms manufacture at Gafat (near Dabra Tabor) with the help of
European missionaries. Produced about 35 cannons, including the famous mortar "Sebastopol."
 Land & Church reform : To get extra land to distribute among the landless, he confiscated
church land and reduced the number of priests and deacons in each church to five.

Opposition and Downfall tewodros II.

 Internal: Administrative and social reforms were opposed by forces of regionalism and the
clergy.
 External: Conflict with the British due to lack of support for his modernization plans and the
imprisonment of Europeans.
 End of Reign: The British sent a large army (Napier Expedition). The storming of Maqdella on
April 30, 1868, and the subsequent suicide of Tewodros brought an end to his reign.

2. Reign of Yohannes IV (1872–1889)

 Succession: Following the death of Tewodros, three contenders emerged: Wagshum Gobeze
(Emperor Tekle-Giorgis II), Kassa Mircha, and Menilek.
 Rise to Power: Kassa Mircha defeated Tekle-Giorgis II at the battle at Assam (near Adwa) in July
1871 and became Emperor Yohannes IV.
 Administration Strategy : Attempted to introduce a decentralized system of administration
permitting regional rulers to exercise a great deal of autonomy.

_Recognized Menilek as Negus of Shawa in 1878 (Liche agreement).

_Designated Ras Adal Tesema as Negus Takla-Haymanot of Gojjam and Kafa in 1881.

 Religious Policy: Presided over the Council of Boru Meda (1878), where Tewahdo was declared
the only doctrine of the EOC. Ethiopian Muslims, especially those of Wallo, were forced to be
converted to Orthodox Christianity. Wallo leaders Mohammed Ali and Amede Liban were
converted to Christianity and changed their names to Ras Michael and Dajjach Hayle-Mariam,
respectively.

3. Menilek II and Territorial Expansion(1865-1911)

Phases of Expansion:

 1st Phase :When he was king of Shewa (1865-89).

Incorporated territories like Tulma,eastern mecha oromo,western gurage,jima Abba
jifar,Arsi ,Hararghe
 2nd Phase:From his coronation as emperor (1889) up to the battle of Adwa (1896).
Incorporated territories like Dawuro,konta,kembata,Bale,Sidama,Gamo Gofa,and Wolayta
 3rd Phase :After the battle of Adwa (1896-1900).
Incorporated kefa,Benishangul, Gambella,and Ogaden
Process of Incorporation:

 Oromo Territories: By the 1870s, incorporated Tulama and eastern Macha Oromo. Ras Gobana
Dache played a pivotal role.
 Gurage: The northern Gurage (Kistane/Soddo) submitted peacefully. The western Gurage, led by
Hassan Enjamo of Qabena, resisted until defeated by Ras Gobana in 1888.
 Western & Southwestern Ethiopia:

_Horro Guduru was controlled by Ras Adal until his defeat at Battle of Embabo.

_Leqa-Naqamte, Leqa-Qellem, and Jimma Abba Jifar submitted peacefully to Menilek, who promised to
recognize and maintain their autonomy.

 Arsi: Stiff resistance for six campaigns (1882 to 1886). Finally suppressed by Ras Darge Sahla
Sellasie at the battle of Azule on 6 September 1886.
 Hararghe: Combined forces of Harari and Oromo defeated at the battle of Chalanqo on 6
January 1887. Dajjach Makonnen Walda-Mikael appointed governor.
 Wolayta: Incorporated after the suppression of stiff popular resistance and the arrest of Kawo
Tona (last king of Wolaita) in 1894.
 Kafa: Incorporated in 1897 after forces of Tato Gaki Sherocho were defeated by Ras Wolde
Giorgis.
 Other Areas: Dawuro, Konta, Kambata, Bale, Sidama, Gamo Gofa, Gedeo, Borana, Konso,
Benishangul, and Gambella were also incorporated.

The Great Famine: The country was hit by the Great Famine or Kefu Qan (1888-92), caused by
rinderpest epidemic expanded by Italian importation of infected cattle. This partly necessitated
territorial expansion in southern Ethiopia.

. Menilek II’s Modernization and Boundary Delimitation

 Modernization: Menilek II founded:

_The first modern bank (Bank of Abyssinia, 1905).

_The first Modern School (Menilek II, 1908).

_The first modern postal system.

_Addis Ababa-Djibouti railway (agreement signed 1894).

_Introduced electricity, telephone, telegraph, motor car, and modern plumbing.

_Started to mint a coin to replace the Maria Theresa Thaler.

 Boundary Treaties: The process of defining Ethiopia’s modern territorial expansion was
completed with agreement signed between 1897 and 1908:
=French Somaliland (Djibouti): 20 March 1897.

=British Somaliland: May 1897.

=Italian Eritrea: 10 July 1900.

=Anglo-Egyptian Sudan: 15 May 1902.

=British East Africa (Kenya): 1907.

=Italian Somaliland: 1908.

3.3 External Aggressions and the Unity of Ethiopian People in Defence of National
Sovereignty, 1871-1896

Conflict with the British (The Napier campaign )

 Causes: Emperor Tewodros’s haily motivated by modernization from the understanding of

danger to Ethiopia. He requested military assistance from Queen Victoria of Great Britain in
1862 through Consul Cameron. Cameron came back via Egypt without any response. Then
Tewodros imprisoned Cameron and other [Link]
 Expedition/campaign : The British parliament decided to take military action. In late 1867, a
large military expedition commanded by Sir Robert Napier was sent.
 Internal Alliances: Local allies with ambitions and grievances against Tewodros, such as Kasa
Mercha of Tigray (future Emperor Yohannes IV), helped the British march from the coast to the
interior.
 Battle of Aroge (10 April 1868): Up to 8,000 of Tewodros’ soldiers, including General Gebriye,
defeated by British forces
 End of Tewodros: On 11 April 1868, Tewodros released his European captives. On 13 April 1868,
Tewodros committed suicide at Maqdala. This was followed by the burning of his fortress and
looting of treasures. The British left immediately.

Egyptian Aggression

Ambition /desire : The Egyptians showed a keen interest to occupy Northeast Africa, including Ethiopia,
with the ambition of controlling the source of the Nile.

1875 Invasion plan: Khedive Ismail Pasha sent troops to invade Ethiopia in three directions:

 [Link] Front: Led by Mohammed Rauf Pasha; resulted in the occupation of the Harar Emirate
(1875 to 1885).
 [Link]/Assab Front: Led by Werner Munzinger, whose forces were defeated and he was killed
by the Afar near Aseb.
  [Link] Front: The largest Egyptian force, under Colonel Arrendrup and Arakel Bey was
decisively defeated by Emperor Yohannes IV's army at the Battle of Gundat (November 16,
1875).

The Second Defeat: The Egyptians sent a new, larger force in 1876, commanded by General Ratib Pasha
and American General Loring. This force was defeated by the Ethiopian army under Yohannes IV at the
Battle of Gura (March 7-9, 1876). The remaining Egyptian forces were later withdrawn due to the
Mahdist Uprising in Sudan.

Italian Encroachment and the Mahdists

 Italian Entry: With the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, the Red Sea region acquired strategic
importance. An Italian private shipping company (Rubatino) bought the port of Assab in 1869,
which was transferred to the Italian government in 1882.
 Massawa: Great Britain secretly transferred Massawa from Egypt to Italy in 1885.
 Battle of Dogali (1887): Italians began penetrating northern Ethiopia (Mereb Melash). They
were defeated decisively by Ras Alula Engida.
 The Hewett Treaty (1884): Brokered by the British between Ethiopia and Egypt. Ethiopia agreed
to facilitate the evacuation of Egyptian soldiers encircled by the Mahdists in eastern Sudan in
return for the use of Massawa.
 Conflict with Mahdists: The Hewett Treaty infuriated the Mahdists.
 Kufit (September 1885): Ethiopian forces were victorious.
 Sar Wuha: Mahdists led by Abu Anja defeated Nigus Tekle-Haimanot’s troops.
 Death of Yohannes IV: Emperor Yohannes faced "triangular tension" (Italians in the north,
Mahdists in the west/northwest, and vassals in the centre). On 9 March 1889, the Emperor
marched to Metemma where he died fighting the Mahdists.

The Battle of Adwa

Treaty of Wuchale (2 May 1889): Signed by King Menilek II and Count Pietro Antonelli.

 Article XVII Controversy: The Amharic version indicated the emperor "could" use the good
offices of the Italian government with other foreign powers relation, while the Italian text made
it obligatory.
 Result: Emperor Menilek unilaterally abrogated the treaty in 1893.

Italian movement : Italians crossed the Marab River, arrived at Adigrat, and proceeded to Amba-Alage.

Mobilization: Following Menilek’s proclamation, about 100,000 troops gathered at Wara-Illu.

Battles leading to Adwa:

 Amba-Alage: Force led by Fitawrari Gebeyehu Gurmu defeated the Italians.

 Siege of Mekelle: In January 1896, under Ras Mekonnen, Ethiopian forces defeated Italians. The
"siege of Mekelle" strategy was believed to be designed by Empress Taytu.
The Battle (March 1st, 1896):

 Commanders in Ethiopian side : Emperor Menilek, Empress Taytu, Ras Mikael, Ras Makonnen,
Ras Alula, Ras Mangasha, and Negus Tekle-Haymanot.
 Commander in Etaly side: general Barateri,and other generals Dbormida,Arimondi,and Alberto
 Casualties: About 8,000 Italian fighters killed, 1,500 wounded, and 3,000 captured. About 4,000-
6,000 Ethiopian troops were killed.

Consequences:

 Treaty of Addis Ababa (October 26, 1896): Italy recognized the independence of Ethiopia.
 International Recognition: Powers like France, Britain, Russia, the United States, Germany,
Belgium, and Turkey recognized Ethiopia and opened legations.
 A symbol of pride : It was the first decisive victory of black people over a powerful white
European power. In Italy, the defeat led to the collapse of the government of Prime minister
Francesco Crispi.

3.4 The Inception /beginning of Power Struggle among the Ruling Elites 1906 to 1935

The turning point Year of 1906

The year 1906 is regarded as a watershed moment in post-Adwa Ethiopia's political history.

 Menilek's Health: Menilek suffered his first stroke in this year, an illness that would claim his life
seven years later.
 Succession Crisis: The situation was made worse by the death of his cousin, Ras Mekonnen
Walda-Mikael, in the same year, who was widely expected to replace him on the throne. As a
result, the issue of succession arose.
 Tripartite Treaty (1906): The surrounding colonial powers (United Kingdom, France, and Italy)
formed a Tripartite Treaty, assuming that Ethiopia would fall into disorder if Menilek died.

Treaty way : Britain and France would each have a sphere of influence over the Nile basin and the
railway zone, respectively. The hinterlands of Italy's colonies, Eritrea, and Italian Somaliland were
considered as part of Italy's interests.

Menilek’s Measures and Succession

 Cabinet establishment : Emperor Menilek established Ethiopia's first cabinet (ministers' council)
in 1907 to address the looming crisis of succession and power vacuum.
 Succession : In 1909, he named his grandson Lij Iyasu as his successor (regent).
 Empress Taytu: Her influence grew, but she faced stiff opposition from the Shawan nobles who
saw her as a significant danger to their dominion. They organised resistance against her, and she
was forced to abstain from participating in the country's politics in 1910.

The Reign of Lij Iyasu (1911–1916)

Iyasu began to control his full powers with the fall of Taytu and the death of Ras Tesema Nadaw. His de
facto rule lasted from 1911 until 1916.

Reforms:

 Maintained Menilek's modernization agenda, which included the construction of Addis Ababa's
first police force.
 Tried to reform property ownership and taxation.
 Removed the traditional Quragna system of tying plaintiffs and defenders together.
 Outlawed the indigenous institution of lebeshay, or magical thief catchers.

Downfall: Some of Iyyasu's actions brought together internal and external forces, leading to his
overthrow in 1916. He was deposed on September 27, 1916.

The Period of Diarchy (1916–1930)

Power Sharing: Following the palace coup against Lij Iyasu, power was shared between Empress
Zawditu (Menilek II's daughter) and Tafari Mekonnen (son of Ras Mekonnen), who was promoted to the
rank of Ras and named successor to the throne.

Battle of Sagale (October 27, 1916): Lij Iyasu's father, Negus Mikael, tried to reverse the coup but was
decisively defeated by the Shawan army led by Ras Tafari at Sagale. This was the deadliest battle since
Adwa.

Political Conflict: The period was characterized by an ongoing dispute between two camps:

 The Conservative/Indigenous group : Led by Fitawrari Habte Giyorgis Dinagde (Empress

Zawditu's adherents).
 The Progressive group : Led by Ras Tafari Mekonnen and his supporters.

Consolidation of Power:

 The expulsion of ministers in 1918 (except Habte Giyorgis) was the first step towards enhancing
Tafari’s power.
 Habte Giyorgis died peacefully in December 1926, putting an end to their silent struggle.

Eliminating Challengers:

 Dajjach Balcha Safo (governor of Sidamo) was removed from his governorship in 1928.
 Ras Gugsa Wale (governor of Begemdir and ex-husband of Zawditu) was defeated at the Battle
of Anchim in 1930.

Haile Selassie’s Autocracy political system

Coronation: Ras Tafari was crowned Negus in 1928 and Emperor in 1930, marking the beginning of Haile
Selassie’s autocracy.
1931 Constitution: The first written constitution established the legal basis for emerging absolutism. It
provided a legal framework for autocratic rule, recognizing the emperor's unrestricted rights to make
appointments, dismiss people, administer justice, declare/end wars, and grant lands and honours.

Centralization: The provincial hereditary aristocracy lost a lot of political influence. Except for Tigray,
other provinces lost their internal autonomy and were replaced by individuals nominated directly by the
Emperor.

Military Modernization:

_In 1930, Belgian officers began training the Imperial Bodyguard.

_In 1934, the first officer training school was established at Holeta by a Swedish military mission.

3.5 Fascist Italian Aggression and Patriotic Resistance

Causes and Preparations

* Italian Ambition: Despite their defeat at Adwa in 1896, the Italians had never given up their desire to
colonize Ethiopia.

*Mussolini came to power : When Benito Mussolini, the leader of the fascist party, came to power in
1922, he was determined to restore ancient Roman power and glory. He planned a larger military
operation in Africa to divert attention away from problems he encountered in Europe.

*The walawal incident : Ethiopian and Italian forces clashed at Walawal, in the Ogaden, on December 5,
1934, over an ill-defined border between Ethiopia and Italo-Somaliland.

The Invasion (1935–1936)

[Link] Northern Front:

 Italian soldiers crossed the Marab River on October 3, 1935.

 Commanders included Emilio de Bono and Pietro Badoglio.
 Badoglio headed the war's most brutal phase with air attacks and dispatched 300 planes to drop
the internationally banned poison gas on Ethiopians.
 Ethiopian Defense: Ras Kassa Hailu had overall command. Under him were Ras Mulugeta
Yeggezu (minister of war), Ras Seyoum Mengesha (ruler of Tigray), and Ras Emeru Haile-Selassie
(governor of Gojjam).

*Key Battles:
  Amba Aradom: Forces of Ras Mulugeta Yegezu fought on the eastern front. Ras Mulugeta
Yigezu was killed.
 Tembien: Force of Ras kassa Hailu and Ras Mengesha Yohanes Won by the Italians.
 Shire: On the western front, Ras Emeru Haile Selassie commanded an army that gained a
modest victory.
 Maychew: The final battle on the northern front was fought on March 31, 1936. The emperor
led the remaining troops and the Imperial bodyguard. The Italians achieved victory.

[Link] Southern Front:

o General Rudolfo Graziani was in charge of the Italian army.

o Ethiopian commanders included Ras Desta Damtew, Dejjach Nesibu Zeamanuel, Dejazmach
Balcha Safo, and Dejjach (later Ras-bitwadad) Mekonnen Endalkachew.
o They were unable to stop the Italian advance.

The Fall of Addis Ababa on etaly

. On 2 May 1936, Emperor Haile Selassie left Addis Ababa for Europe via Djibouti.

. On 5 May 1936, Addis Ababa came under the control of the Italian army led by Marshal Badoglio.
*Reasons for Italian Success: Greater preparation, superior weapons, a crucial monopoly of airpower,
and the deployment of the banned mustard gas.

*Ethiopian Weaknesses: Logistical issues (absence of roads, radio communication and maps) and
commanders lost the Adwa-era military courage without replacing it with contemporary military skills.

Italian Administration

o Benito Mussolini declared, “Ethiopia is Italian”.

o Italian East Africa (AOI): Merged Ethiopia with Eritrea and Somalia. It had six major territorial
divisions:

[Link] (including Tigray) with capital at Asmara.

[Link] with capital at Gondar.

[Link] Ababa (later renamed Shawa).

[Link] and Sidama with capital at Jimma.

Harar.

[Link] (including Ogaden) with capital at Mogadishu.

* Viceroys: Badoglio was the first, followed by Graziani, and finally Amadeo Umberto d'Aosta, Duke of
Aosta.

Patriotic Resistance (Arbegnoch)

o The resistance began almost soon after the Battle of Maychew.

o Slogan: “ተነስ! አትነሳም ወይ ሀገር ሲወረር ዝም ትላለህ ወይ” ('Stand! Oh rise up; you cannot
sit there while the nation is invaded').

The Two Phases:

 First Phase: A continuation of the conflict marked by conventional military battles and mostly
headed by upper-class nobles.
 Second Phase: Dominated by guerrilla warfare and mostly headed by members of the lower
nobility. The dividing line was the failed assassination attempt on Graziani in February 1937.

Key Figures and Events of Resistance

* First Phase(conventional war)Leaders: Ras Emeru Hayla-Sellase, Ras Desta Damtew, Abera and
Asfawason Kasa, Dejjach Balcha Safo, Ras Abebe Aregay, and Dejjach Feqre-Maryam Yennadu.

* Graziani Massacre: On February 19, 1937, Moges Asgedom and Abraha Deboch attempted to kill
Italian Viceroy Graziani. As revenge, Italian forces slaughtered approximately 30,000 Ethiopians in three
days.

* First phase(Guerrilla )Leaders: Haile Mariam Mamo, Abebe Aregay, Geresu Duki, and Bekele Woya in
Shawa; Belay Zeleke in Gojjam; and Amoraw Wubineh in Gondar.

Role of Women:

 Served as Yewust Arbegnoch ("inner patriots") collecting weapons, medicine, and intelligence.
 Some led troops in battles.
 Prominent women included Shewareged Gedle, Kebedech Seyoum, Shewanesh Abera, Abebech
Cherqos, and Lekyelesh Beyan.

Liberation of Ethiopia

In June 1940, Italy entered World War II on the side of Germany, leading to British military
[Link] British was wanted to military assistant to Ethiopia

The Campaign:

 Troops under General William Platt attacked Italians in Eritrea.

 Gideon Force: Led by Major General Orde Charles Wingate and Brigadier General Daniel
Sandford with Emperor Haile Selassie, entered Gojjam in April 1941.
 General Sir Allan Cunningham entered through British East Africa (Kenya).
Victory Ethiopia : Cunningham's army controlled Addis Ababa on 6 April 1941. Emperor Haile Selassie
re-entered his capital on 5 May 1941 and officially hoisted the Ethiopian flag.