BODY FLUIDS

AND
CIRCULATION
The role of the heart, blood
and blood vessels
 INTRODUCTION
ALL LIVING CELLS NEED MATERIALS:
EVERY LIVING CELL MUST RECEIVE ESSENTIAL SUBSTANCES LIKE NUTRIENTS, OXYGEN (O₂), AND OTHER NECESSARY
MATERIALS FOR SURVIVAL AND PROPER FUNCTIONING.
REMOVAL OF WASTES:
CELLS ALSO PRODUCE WASTE OR HARMFUL SUBSTANCES THAT MUST BE REMOVED CONTINUOUSLY TO MAINTAIN
HEALTHY TISSUE FUNCTION.
NEED FOR TRANSPORT MECHANISM:
THEREFORE, ANIMALS REQUIRE EFFICIENT SYSTEMS TO TRANSPORT USEFUL MATERIALS TO THE CELLS AND CARRY
WASTES AWAY FROM THEM.
SIMPLE ORGANISMS (SPONGES AND COELENTERATES):
THESE ORGANISMS LACK SPECIALIZED TRANSPORT SYSTEMS.
THEY CIRCULATE WATER FROM THEIR SURROUNDINGS THROUGH THEIR BODY CAVITIES, ALLOWING DIRECT EXCHANGE
OF MATERIALS (NUTRIENTS, GASES, WASTES) BETWEEN CELLS AND THE ENVIRONMENT.
 INTRODUCTION
COMPLEX ORGANISMS:
AS ORGANISMS EVOLVED AND BECAME LARGER AND MORE COMPLEX, DIFFUSION ALONE WAS NOT
ENOUGH FOR TRANSPORT.
THEY DEVELOPED SPECIAL TRANSPORT FLUIDS WITHIN THEIR BODIES.
BLOOD AS TRANSPORT FLUID:
BLOOD IS THE MAIN BODY FLUID USED BY MOST HIGHER ORGANISMS (INCLUDING HUMANS).
IT TRANSPORTS OXYGEN, NUTRIENTS, HORMONES, AND WASTE MATERIALS EFFICIENTLY
THROUGHOUT THE BODY.
LYMPH AS ANOTHER TRANSPORT FLUID:
LYMPH (TISSUE FLUID) IS ANOTHER BODY FLUID.
IT HELPS IN THE TRANSPORT OF CERTAIN SUBSTANCES, ESPECIALLY FATS AND IMMUNE CELLS.
 Study focus of the chapter:
This chapter explains:
The composition and properties of
blood and lymph, and the mechanism of
circulation of blood within the body.
 BLOOD
BLOOD IS A SPECIAL CONNECTIVE TISSUE CONSISTING OF A
FLUID MATRIX, PLASMA, AND FORMED ELEMENTS.
 PLASMA

Definition and Appearance:

Plasma is the straw-coloured, viscous (thick)
fluid part of blood.
It makes up about 55% of the total blood volume.
Composition:
90–92% of plasma is water.
6–8% of plasma is made up of proteins.
Major Plasma Proteins:
Fibrinogen: Helps in blood clotting
(coagulation).
Globulins: Play a major role in body defense
(immunity).
Albumins: Maintain osmotic balance and blood
volume.
 PLASMA

Other Substances in Plasma:

Contains minerals (ions) such as Na⁺, Ca²⁺, Mg²⁺,
HCO₃⁻, and Cl⁻.
Also contains nutrients like glucose, amino
acids, and lipids, which are transported through
plasma.
Coagulation Factors:
Plasma contains clotting factors in an inactive
form, which get activated during injury to form
clots.
Serum:
When clotting factors are removed from plasma,
the remaining fluid is called serum.
FORMED ELEMENTS
Blood Components:
Blood is made up of two main parts —
plasma (fluid part) and formed
elements (cellular part).
Formed Elements:
The formed elements include three
types of cells —
Erythrocytes (RBCs)
Leucocytes (WBCs)
Platelets (Thrombocytes)
 ERYTHROCYTES:
Most Abundant Blood Cells:
Erythrocytes (RBCs) are the most numerous cells in
the blood.
They make up the majority of the formed elements.
Number in Blood:
A healthy adult man has about 5 to 5.5 million RBCs
per cubic millimetre (mm³) of blood.
Site of Formation:
In adults, RBCs are produced in the red bone
marrow.
Structure:
No nucleus in most mammals (to provide more space
for haemoglobin).
Biconcave shape increases surface area for gas
exchange and flexibility to move through capillaries.
ERYTHROCYTES:
Haemoglobin:
RBCs contain haemoglobin, a red-coloured, iron-containing protein.
It gives RBCs their colour and enables oxygen and carbon dioxide
transport.
Haemoglobin Content:
A healthy person has about 12–16 grams of haemoglobin per 100 ml of
blood.
Function:
RBCs transport respiratory gases — oxygen from lungs to tissues and
carbon dioxide from tissues to lungs.
Life Span and Destruction:
Average life span = 120 days.
Old and damaged RBCs are destroyed in the spleen, which is called the
“graveyard of RBCs.”
 LEUCOCYTES
Definition and Colour:
Leucocytes are also called White Blood Cells (WBCs).
They are colourless because they lack haemoglobin.
Structure and Number:
WBCs are nucleated (have a nucleus).
They are fewer in number than RBCs, about 6000–8000 per mm³ of
blood.
Lifespan:
Leucocytes are short-lived cells and must be constantly produced.
Types of WBCs:
WBCs are classified into two main categories:
Granulocytes: Contain granules in their cytoplasm.
Agranulocytes: Lack granules in their cytoplasm.
 LEUCOCYTES:
Granulocytes (3 types):
Neutrophils: Most abundant (60–65% of
total WBCs); phagocytic – engulf and
destroy foreign organisms.
Eosinophils: 2–3% of total WBCs; resist
infections and are linked with allergic
reactions.
Basophils: Least abundant (0.5–1%);
release histamine, serotonin, and heparin
involved in inflammatory reactions.
 LEUCOCYTES:
Agranulocytes (2 types):
Lymphocytes: Play a major role in
immunity (B-cells produce
antibodies; T-cells provide cell-
mediated defence).
Monocytes: About 6–8% of total
WBCs; phagocytic – engulf and
destroy foreign particles.
THINK OF B CELLS AS ARCHERS: THEY SHOOT ANTIBODIES (LIKE ARROWS)
INTO THE BLOODSTREAM OR LYMPH, TARGETING INVADERS FLOATING
AROUND.
THINK OF T CELLS AS SOLDIERS INSIDE THE BODY: THEY ENTER INFECTED
AREAS (OR OTHER CELLS) AND EITHER KILL INFECTED CELLS OR COORDINATE
THE DEFENCE (GIVE ORDERS).
TOGETHER, THEY MAKE THE ADAPTIVE IMMUNE SYSTEM SMART: THEY CAN
REMEMBER INVADERS AND RESPOND FASTER THE NEXT TIME.
THROMBOCYTES
Platelets are also called thrombocytes.
They are cell fragments produced from
megakaryocytes, which are special cells in the bone
marrow.
The normal count of platelets in blood is 1,50,000 –
3,50,000 per mm³.
Platelets can release various substances involved in
blood coagulation (clotting).
A reduction in platelet number causes clotting
disorders.
Such disorders can lead to excessive blood loss from
the body.
 Blood Groups
HUMAN BLOOD APPEARS SIMILAR BUT
DIFFERS IN CERTAIN ASPECTS.
BLOOD GROUPING HAS BEEN DONE BASED ON
THESE DIFFERENCES.
THE TWO MAIN TYPES OF BLOOD GROUP
SYSTEMS ARE:
ABO SYSTEM
RH SYSTEM
THESE TWO BLOOD GROUP SYSTEMS ARE
WIDELY USED ALL OVER THE WORLD.
 ABO grouping
ABO BLOOD GROUPING IS BASED ON THE PRESENCE OR ABSENCE OF
TWO SURFACE ANTIGENS ON THE RBCS – NAMELY A AND B.
ANTIGENS ARE CHEMICALS THAT CAN INDUCE AN IMMUNE
RESPONSE.
THE PLASMA OF DIFFERENT INDIVIDUALS CONTAINS TWO NATURAL
ANTIBODIES (PROTEINS PRODUCED IN RESPONSE TO ANTIGENS).
BASED ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF ANTIGENS AND ANTIBODIES, THERE
ARE FOUR BLOOD GROUPS – A, B, AB, AND O.
DURING BLOOD TRANSFUSION, ANY BLOOD CANNOT BE USED; THE
DONOR’S BLOOD MUST BE CAREFULLY MATCHED WITH THE
RECIPIENT’S BLOOD.
THIS MATCHING IS ESSENTIAL TO AVOID CLUMPING (DESTRUCTION
OF RBCS), WHICH CAN CAUSE SEVERE COMPLICATIONS.
from the blood group table, it is clear that group ‘O’ blood
can be donated to individuals of any blood group.
Hence, ‘O’ group individuals are known as universal donors.
‘AB’ group individuals can receive blood from all blood
groups — A, B, AB, and O.
Therefore, ‘AB’ group individuals are called universal
recipients.
Rh grouping
Another antigen called the Rh antigen is present on the surface of
RBCs.
It is named Rh because it is similar to the antigen found in Rhesus
monkeys.
About 80% of humans have this antigen and are called Rh positive
(Rh⁺ve).
Individuals without the Rh antigen are called Rh negative (Rh⁻ve).
If an Rh⁻ve person is exposed to Rh⁺ve blood, they will produce
antibodies against the Rh antigen.
Hence, the Rh group must also be matched before blood transfusions
to prevent complications.
A special case of Rh incompatibility can occur between an
Rh⁻ve mother and an Rh⁺ve foetus.
During the first pregnancy, the Rh antigens of the foetus do not
mix with the mother’s Rh⁻ve blood, as the placenta keeps the
two bloods separated.
However, during the delivery of the first child, small amounts
of the foetus’s Rh⁺ve blood may enter the mother’s circulation.
As a result, the mother’s immune system starts producing
antibodies against the Rh antigen.
In subsequent pregnancies, the Rh antibodies from an
Rh⁻ve mother can enter the blood of an Rh⁺ve foetus.
These antibodies destroy the foetal RBCs, causing
serious health problems.
This may be fatal to the foetus or cause severe anaemia
and jaundice in the newborn baby.
The condition is known as erythroblastosis foetalis.
It can be prevented by giving the mother anti-Rh
antibodies immediately after the delivery of the first
child.
 Coagulation of Blood
What happens when you cut your finger or get injured?
When you get a cut or injury, the bleeding stops after some time due to a process
called blood coagulation (clotting).
Coagulation is a protective mechanism that prevents excessive loss of blood from
the body.
At the site of injury, a dark reddish-brown scum or clot forms over time.
The clot (coagulum) is mainly made up of a network of fibrin threads that trap
dead and damaged blood cells.
 Coagulation of Blood
Fibrins are formed by the conversion of inactive fibrinogen (in plasma) into fibrin
by the enzyme thrombin.
Thrombin itself is produced from an inactive substance called prothrombin,
present in the plasma.
The conversion of prothrombin to thrombin requires an enzyme complex called
thrombokinase.
Thrombokinase is formed through a cascade process—a series of linked enzymatic
reactions involving inactive plasma factors.
Injury or trauma stimulates platelets to release factors that activate the
coagulation mechanism.
Tissue factors released from the site of injury can also initiate coagulation.
Calcium ions (Ca²⁺) play a crucial role in the entire blood clotting process.
 LYMPH (TISSUE FLUID)
As blood passes through the capillaries in tissues, some water and small
water-soluble substances move out into the spaces between tissue cells.
Larger proteins and most formed elements remain inside the blood vessels.
The fluid that moves out is called the interstitial fluid or tissue fluid.
The mineral distribution in tissue fluid is similar to that in plasma.
Exchange of nutrients, gases, and other substances between blood and body
cells occurs through this tissue fluid.
The lymphatic system, an elaborate network of vessels, collects the tissue
fluid and drains it back into the major veins.
The fluid present in the lymphatic system is called lymph.
Lymph is a colourless fluid containing specialised lymphocytes responsible
for the body’s immune responses.
Lymph also acts as an important carrier of nutrients, hormones, and other
substances.
Fats are absorbed through lymph in the lacteals present in the intestinal villi.
CIRCULATORY PATHWAY right left
🩸 Types of Circulatory Systems atrium atrium
[Link] types of circulatory patterns:
Open circulatory system
Closed circulatory system
🔴 Open Circulatory System right
ventricle
left
ventricle
Found in arthropods and molluscs.
The heart pumps blood into large open spaces called sinuses or body cavities.
Blood directly bathes the body organs.
There are no distinct blood capillaries or closed vessels.
Example: Cockroach, Prawn, Snail.
🔵 Closed Circulatory System
Found in annelids and chordates.
The blood always flows within a closed network of vessels — arteries, veins, and capillaries.
Blood does not directly bathe body tissues.
Exchange of materials occurs through thin capillary walls.
This system allows better control and regulation of blood flow.
Example: Earthworm, Fish, Humans.
CIRCULATORY PATHWAY right left
❤️ Heart and Circulation in Vertebrates atrium atrium
1. All vertebrates have a muscular, chambered heart.

🐟 Fishes right
ventricle
left
Heart: 2 chambers – 1 atrium + 1 ventricle. ventricle
Type of blood: The heart pumps deoxygenated blood.
Circulation:
Blood is oxygenated by gills.
Oxygenated blood goes to the body parts.
Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart.
Type: Single circulation (blood passes through the heart only once in one
complete cycle).
CIRCULATORY PATHWAY
🐸 Amphibians and 🐍 Reptiles (except crocodiles)
1. Heart: 3 chambers – 2 atria + 1 ventricle.
2. Left atrium: Receives oxygenated blood from
lungs/skin/gills.
3. Right atrium: Receives deoxygenated blood from
body parts.
4. In ventricle: Both types of blood mix partially.
5. Type: Incomplete double circulation (partial mixing
of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood).
CIRCULATORY PATHWAY
🐊 Crocodiles, 🐦 Birds, and 🧍‍♂️ Mammals
Heart: 4 chambers – 2 atria + 2 ventricles.
Left side: Receives and pumps oxygenated blood.
Right side: Receives and pumps deoxygenated blood.
No mixing of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Type: Double circulation (two separate loops –
pulmonary and systemic).
 ❤️ Human Circulatory System (Blood Vascular System)
🚪 Valves of the Heart
[Link] atrium → Right ventricle: guarded by tricuspid valve (3 flaps).
[Link] atrium → Left ventricle: guarded by bicuspid (mitral) valve (2 flaps).
[Link] ventricle → Pulmonary artery and Left ventricle → Aorta have
semilunar valves.
[Link] of valves: Allow blood flow in one direction only and prevent
backflow.

💪 Heart Wall and Musculature

[Link] heart is made of cardiac muscles.
[Link] walls are thicker than atrial walls (more pumping force).
 ❤️ Human Circulatory System (Blood Vascular System)
⚡Nodal Tissue and Conduction System of the Heart
[Link] Cardiac Musculature
The heart has specialised muscle tissue called nodal tissue distributed
in specific regions.
[Link]-Atrial Node (SAN)
Located in the right upper corner of the right atrium.
Known as the pacemaker of the heart.
Generates the maximum number of action potentials (70–75 per
minute).
Initiates and maintains the rhythmic contraction of the heart.
[Link]-Ventricular Node (AVN)
Found in the lower left corner of the right atrium, close to the atrio-
ventricular septum.
Receives the impulse from SAN and passes it onward.
 ❤️ Human Circulatory System (Blood Vascular System)
Atrioventricular Bundle (AV Bundle / Bundle of His)
Originates from the AV node.
Passes through the atrio-ventricular septum and emerges on the top of
the interventricular septum.
Immediately divides into right and left bundle branches.
Purkinje Fibres
Minute fibres arising from the bundle branches.
Spread throughout the ventricular musculature of both sides.
Help in coordinating ventricular contraction.
 ❤️ Human Circulatory System (Blood Vascular System)
Autoexcitability
Nodal tissue can generate action potentials without external
stimuli (autoexcitable property).
Variation in Action Potential Generation
Different parts of the nodal system generate impulses at
different rates.
SAN has the highest rate (70–75 per minute).
Heart Rate
Due to SAN activity, the normal heart rate is 70–75 beats per
minute (average 72 bpm).
 left
right atrium

Cardiac Cycle atrium

right
left
ventricle
ventricle
Joint Diastole (Relaxation Phase)
All four chambers of the heart are in a relaxed state.
The tricuspid and bicuspid (mitral) valves are open.
Blood flows from:
Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Left ventricle
Vena cava → Right atrium → Right ventricle
Semilunar valves (of pulmonary artery and aorta) are closed at this stage.
Atrial Systole (Atrial Contraction)
The Sino-Atrial Node (SAN) generates an action potential.
This causes both atria to contract simultaneously.
Atrial contraction pushes an additional 30% of blood into the ventricles.
 Cardiac Cycle
Transmission of Impulse
The action potential passes from SAN → Atrioventricular Node
(AVN) → →
AV bundle (Bundle of His) Purkinje fibres.
The impulse spreads through the ventricular musculature, causing
ventricular contraction.
Ventricular Systole (Ventricular Contraction)
As ventricles contract, the atria relax (atrial diastole) occurs
simultaneously.
Ventricular pressure increases, leading to:
Closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves (to prevent backflow
into atria).
When pressure rises further, semilunar valves open, allowing:
Blood to flow into the pulmonary artery (right side) and aorta
(left side).
 Cardiac Cycle
Ventricular Diastole (Ventricular Relaxation)
After contraction, ventricles relax and pressure falls.
This causes semilunar valves to close, preventing backflow of
blood into ventricles.
As pressure continues to decline:
The tricuspid and bicuspid valves reopen,
Blood from the atria flows freely into the ventricles again.
Return to Joint Diastole
Both atria and ventricles are again in a relaxed state.
The SAN soon generates a new action potential, and the cycle
repeats.
 Cardiac Cycle
Cardiac Cycle
The sequence of events (systole and diastole of atria and ventricles)
forms one cardiac cycle.
The heart beats 72 times per minute, meaning 72 cardiac cycles per
minute.
Duration of one cardiac cycle = 0.8 seconds.
Stroke Volume and Cardiac Output
Stroke Volume (SV): Amount of blood pumped by each ventricle per
beat = ≈ 70 mL.
Cardiac Output (CO): Total blood pumped per minute =
Stroke Volume × Heart Rate = 70 mL × 72 beats/min = 5040 mL (≈ 5
L/min).
Cardiac output can vary with body condition and activity level.
Athletes have a higher cardiac output than ordinary individuals.
Heart Sounds
Two main sounds are produced during each cardiac cycle:
“Lub” (First heart sound): Closure of tricuspid and bicuspid valves.
“Dub” (Second heart sound): Closure of semilunar valves.
These sounds are clinically significant and can be heard using a
stethoscope.
 Electrocardiograph (ECG)
❤️ Electrocardiogram (ECG) –
ECG (Electrocardiogram) is a graphical representation of the electrical
activity of the heart during a cardiac cycle.
It is recorded using a machine called an Electrocardiograph.
Setup for Recording Standard ECG:
The patient is connected to the machine using three electrical
leads:
One on each wrist
One on the left ankle
These leads continuously monitor the heart’s electrical
activity.
For detailed heart evaluation, multiple leads are also
attached to the chest region.
However, a standard ECG uses only the three limb leads.
Understanding the ECG Waves (P to T):
Each peak or deflection in the ECG is labeled with letters P, Q, R, S, and T, each
representing a specific electrical event of the heart.

Wave/Complex Represents Physiological Event

Electrical excitation or
Leads to contraction of both
P-wave depolarisation atria
/Contractionof atria
Initiates ventricular contraction
Depolarisation of
QRS complex (systole begins); contraction
ventricles starts shortly after Q

Indicates return to normal

Repolarisation/ relaxation
T-wave (resting) state; end of T marks
of ventricles end of systole
Determining Heart Rate:
The number of QRS complexes occurring in a given time period can be
counted to determine an individual’s heart rate.

Clinical Importance:
Normal ECGs have a similar shape in healthy individuals for a given
lead configuration.
Deviations from the normal pattern or shape indicate a possible
abnormality or disease (e.g., arrhythmia, heart block, myocardial
infarction).
Hence, ECG is of great clinical significance in diagnosing heart
disorders.

Extra Note (for quick memory):

Depolarisation → Contraction (Excitation)
Repolarisation → Relaxation (Recovery)
 DOUBLE CIRCULATION
🩸 Blood Vessels and Circulatory Pathways
1. Structure of Blood Vessels

Blood flows through a fixed route of arteries and veins.

Each artery and vein has three layers:

Tunica intima Inner lining Made of squamous endothelium (smooth inner

surface)
Tunica media Middle layer Contains smooth muscle and elastic fibres; thicker in
arteries, thinner in veins
Tunica externa Outer layer Made of fibrous connective tissue with collagen
fibres for protection and strength
Pulmonary Circulation
Right ventricle → Pulmonary artery → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left
atrium
Steps:
Right ventricle pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary artery.
Blood travels to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs (CO₂ released, O₂
absorbed).
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary
veins.
This pathway is called Pulmonary Circulation.
Function: Oxygenates blood.
Systemic Circulation
Left ventricle → Aorta → Body tissues → Veins → Right atrium
Steps:
Left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta.
Blood is distributed through arteries → arterioles → capillaries to body tissues.
Deoxygenated blood is collected by venules → veins → vena cava and delivered to
the right atrium.
This pathway is called Systemic Circulation.
Function:
Supplies O₂ and nutrients to tissues.
Removes CO₂ and waste products for elimination.
 Hepatic Portal System
A unique vascular connection between the digestive tract
and the liver.
Hepatic portal vein carries blood from the intestine to the
liver before it enters systemic circulation.
Function:
Allows the liver to process nutrients and detoxify
substances absorbed from food before blood reaches the
rest of the body.
Coronary Circulation
A special system of blood vessels that supply
the cardiac muscles (heart tissue) with blood.
Includes coronary arteries and veins.
Function: Ensures continuous supply of
oxygen and nutrients to the heart muscles and
removes wastes.
Type of Circulation Main Route Function

Right ventricle → Lungs →

Pulmonary Oxygenation of blood
Left atrium

Left ventricle → Body tissues Transport of O₂ & nutrients to

Systemic
→ Right atrium tissues, removal of wastes

Intestine → Liver → Systemic Nutrient processing &

Hepatic portal
circulation detoxification

Heart → Cardiac muscles → Blood supply to heart tissue

Coronary
Heart itself
 REGULATION OF CARDIAC ACTIVITY

❤️ Regulation of Heart Function :

1. Intrinsic Regulation (Myogenic Nature)
The heart regulates its own activity — called intrinsic
regulation.
This is done by specialised cardiac muscles called nodal
tissue.
Because the heartbeat is initiated by the heart muscle
itself (not by nerves), the heart is called myogenic.
Extrinsic Regulation (Neural Control):
Though the heart is myogenic, its activity can be
modified by the brain.
A special cardiac control centre is present in the
medulla oblongata of the brain.
This centre regulates the heart through the
autonomic nervous system (ANS).
3. Role of the Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
(a) Sympathetic Nervous System
Part of ANS that stimulates heart activity.
Effects:
Increases heart rate.
Increases strength of ventricular contraction.
Increases cardiac output (amount of blood pumped per minute).
(b) Parasympathetic Nervous System
Part of ANS that slows down heart activity.
Effects:
Decreases heart rate.
Slows conduction of action potential through the heart.
Reduces cardiac output.
4. Hormonal Regulation
Adrenal medulla releases adrenaline
(epinephrine)Increases heart rate, breathing rate, blood
glucose, and redirects blood to muscles. and
noradrenaline (norepinephrine)Constricts blood vessels
to maintain blood pressure..
These hormones increase cardiac output by:
Raising heart rate, and
Strengthening ventricular contractions.