MODULE I: BOTANY

CHAPTER 1: THE LIVING WORLD

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What is binomial nomenclature, the most acceptable mode of naming organisms?
Comments.
ANS. Different countries have different languages and different name for the single species.
This would create confusion. Hence, to avoid confusion and difficulties of translation,
binomial nomenclature is the most acceptable mode of naming organisms.
The system of naming with two components is called Binomial nomenclature. It is proposed
by Linnaeus.
Botanical names are based on the rules in International Code for Botanical Nomenclature
(ICBN). Zoological names are based on International Code for Zoological Nomenclature
(ICZN).
Universal rules of Binomial nomenclature:
i. Scientific names are in Latin or Latinised and written in italics. When handwritten,
they are underlined separately.
ii. The first word is genus name (Generic name) and second word is the species name
(specific epithet).
iii. E.g. Homo sapiens- Homo represents the genus name and sapiens represents the
species name.
iv. The Genus name starts with capital letter and the species name starts with small letter.
v. Name of the author (in abbreviated form) appears at the end of the biological name.
vi. E.g., Mangifera indica Linn. It indicates that this species was first described by
Linnaeus.

2. Discuss in detail different taxonomical categories in ascending order with examples.

ANS. Classification involves hierarchy of steps in which each step represents a taxonomic
category (rank). All categories together constitute a taxonomic hierarchy. A group of
organisms occupying a particular category is called a taxon (pl. taxa). E.g. Class Mammalia.
Each category or taxon represents a unit of classification.
i. Species: It is a group of closely related organisms capable of interbreeding to produce
fertile offspring. It is the lowest category. E.g.
ii. Genus: It is the aggregates of closely related species. E.g. Potato, tomato & brinjal are
species of genus Solanum.
iii. Lion, leopard & tiger are species of genus Panthera. This genus differs from genus
Felis (genus of cats).
iv. Family: It is a group of closely related genera. E.g. Family Solanaceae includes Genus
Solanum, Genus Petunia and Genus Datura.
v. Family Felidae includes Genus Panthera and Genus Felis.
vi. Order: It is the assemblage of related families. E.g. Order Polymoniales includes
Family Convolvulaceae and Family Solanaceae.
 vii. Order Carnivora includes Family Felidae & Family Canidae.
viii. Class: It is the assemblage of related orders. E.g. Order Primata, Carnivora etc. is
placed in class Mammalia.
ix. Phylum (Division in case of plants): It is the assemblage of related classes. E.g.
Classes Amphibia, Reptilia, Aves, Mammalia etc. come under phylum Chordata.
x. Kingdom: The assemblage of related phyla. It is the highest category. E.g. Kingdom
Plantae, Kingdom Animalia etc.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Discuss different taxonomical categories in ascending order.

ANS. Taxonomic hierarchy is the process of arranging various groups of organisms, into successive
levels of the biological classification in a sequence either in a decreasing or increasing order from
kingdom to species and vice versa. Each of this level or hierarchy is called the taxonomic category or
rank.
Various taxonomic categories can be arranged in ascending order as taxonomic hierarchy as shown
below -
Species → Genus → Family → Order → Class → Phylum → Kingdom.
Here, Kingdom is the highest taxonomic category with a maximum number of organisms while
species is the lowest category.

2. Define Herbarium.
ANS. A herbarium is a collection of preserved plant specimens that have been stored appropriately,
databased and arranged systematically to ensure quick access to students, researchers and the general
public for scientific research and education.
The herbarium is a collection store of plants in their dried condition. Plants are pressed, dried, and
preserved on white sheets for reference. The sheets with specimens are arranged in one of the accepted
systems of classification. Herbarium aids in taxonomical studies of different species.
Royal Botanical Garden at Kew in England is the largest herbarium in the world. It is a World
Heritage Site and houses extensive botanic collections of 7,000,000 specimens.

2. What is Systematics?

ANS. The study of organism identification, classification, nomenclature and evolutionary

relationship is known as systematics. It is concerned with the evolution of organisms'
relationships. Classification of organisms into various kingdoms have been done by
systematics.
 CHAPTER 2: BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Write down the main characteristics of kingdom fungi?
ANS. Following are the important characteristics of fungi:
i. Fungi are eukaryotic, non-vascular, non-motile and heterotrophic organisms.
ii. They may be unicellular or filamentous.
iii. They reproduce by means of spores.
iv. Fungi exhibit the phenomenon of alternation of generation.
v. Fungi lack chlorophyll and hence cannot perform photosynthesis.
vi. Fungi store their food in the form of starch.
vii. Biosynthesis of chitin occurs in fungi.
viii. The nuclei of the fungi are very small.
ix. The fungi have no embryonic stage. They develop from the spores.
x. The mode of reproduction is sexual or asexual.
xi. Some fungi are parasitic and can infect the host.
xii. Fungi produce a chemical called pheromone which leads to sexual reproduction in
fungi.
xiii. Examples include mushrooms, moulds and yeast.

Kingdom Fungi are classified into the following based on the formation of spores:

a. Zygomycetes – These are formed by the fusion of two different cells. The sexual
spores are known as zygospores, while the asexual spores are known as
sporangiospores. The hyphae are without the septa. Example – Mucor.
b. Ascomycetes – They are also called sac fungi. They can be coprophilous,
decomposers, parasitic or saprophytic. The sexual spores are called ascospores.
Asexual reproduction occurs by conidiospores. Example – Saccharomyces.
c. Basidiomycetes – Mushrooms are the most commonly found basidiomycetes and
mostly live as parasites. Sexual reproduction occurs by basidiospores. Asexual
reproduction occurs by conidia, budding or fragmentation. Example- Agaricus.
d. Deuteromycetes – They are otherwise called imperfect fungi as they do not follow the
regular reproduction cycle as the other fungi. They do not reproduce sexually. Asexual
reproduction occurs by conidia. Example – Trichoderma.

2. What are characteristics features of kingdom monera.

ANS. As per R H Whittaker's five kingdom classification, all the prokaryotic organisms
(bacteria, blue-green algae) are placed under the Kindom Monera.
The general characteristics of Kingdom Monera include;
i. All are primitive prokaryotic organisms.
ii. They are generally unicellular.
iii. A membrane-bound nucleus is absent. Double-stranded DNA is suspended in the
cytoplasm, known as a nucleoid.
 iv. Membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, etc. are
absent.
v. Lives in anaerobic or aerobic conditions. They also survive in extreme climatic
conditions like hot springs, snow, and deep oceans.
vi. They have 70S ribosomes.
vii. Most organisms have a rigid cell wall made of peptidoglycan. But, some organisms
like mycoplasma even lack a cell wall.
viii. They have different modes of nutrition - autotrophic (photoautotrophs or
chemoautotrophs), heterotrophic, parasitic, saprophytic, symbiotic, etc.
ix. Reproduction is mainly asexual through binary fission or budding. Some modes of
sexual reproduction like conjugation also exist.
x. They may be motile (using flagella) or non-motile.

3. State merits and demerits of five kingdom system of classification.

Merits
a. The complexity of cell structure, prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
b. The complexity of body structure or structural organization, unicellular and
multicellular.
c. Mode of nutrition which is divergent in multicellular kingdoms-
photoautotrophy in Plantae, absorptive heterotrophy in fungi and ingestive
heterotrophy in animalia. Photoautotrophic nutrition is also called holophytic
nutrition while ingestive heterotrophy is known as holozoic nutrition.
Absorptive heterotrophy is saprobiotic (=saprophytic) nutrition.
d. Ecological lifestyle like producers (Plantae), decomposers (fungi) and
consumers (animalia).
e. Phylogenetic relationships.

Demerits
a. The kingdoms Monera and Protista include diverse, heterogeneous forms of
life. In both the kingdoms, there are photosynthetic (autotrophic) as well as
non-photosynthetic (heterotrophic) organisms. Both the kingdoms include
organisms which have cells with cell wall as well as without cell wall.
b. Unicellular green algae like Volvox and Chlamydomonas have not been
included under Protista because of their resemblance to other green algae.
c. Slime moulds differ totally from other members of Protista in their general
organization.
d. Viruses have not been given proper place in this system of classification.
e. Multicellular lines have originated from protistans several times.
 SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. Compare the salient feature of Monera and Protista.
ANS.
Monera Protista
1. Found in almost all habitats on Earth. Are primarily aquatic.
2. Are unicellular prokaryotes. Are unicellular eukaryotes.
3. Does not have a well-defined nucleus in their cells.
Does have a well-defined nucleus in their
cells.
4. Shows asexual mode of reproduction. Shows both asexual and sexual mode of
reproduction.
5. Size of their micro-organisms is small. Size of their micro-organisms is
comparatively larger.
6. Classified into archaebacteria, eubacteria, and Classified into protozoans, algae, and molds.
cyanobacteria.
Example: Bacteria, cyanobacteria, et cetera. Example: Amoeba, paramecium, et cetera.

2. Highlight the criteria used for the five kingdom system of classification.
ANS.

3. What are the three steps of sexual reproduction in Fungi? Explain.

ANS. The sexual cycle of fungi involves the following three steps:
[Link] protoplasm of two motile or non-motile gametes fuses by the process of plasmogamy. It
is fusion of two haploid cells without nuclear fusion.
[Link] involves fusion of nuclei of the two gametes.
[Link] in zygote results in haploid spores.
4. Differentiate between Virus, Viroid, and Prions.
ANS.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Write any four diagnostic features of kingdom Protista?
ANS. The characteristic features of Kingdom Protista are as follows:
(i) This group includes many kinds of eukaryotic unicellular organisms.
(ii) Some of these organisms use appendages, such as hair like cilia or whip like flagella for
moving around.
(iii) Their mode of nutrition can be Autotrophic or heterotrophic
(iv) Examples of Protista are unicellular algae (Chlamydomonas, Volvox), diatoms and
Protozoa (Amoeba).

2. Name two traits in which fungi resembles Animalia?

ANS. Chitin is the polysaccharide material which is present in the cell wall of fungi. These
are the fibrous structures which are present in the exoskeleton of certain animals.
The glycogen is the polymer of glucose. This is the form in which glucose is stored in the
liver of animals. The stored form of carbohydrate in fungi is glycogen.

3. Name the food reservoir from the fungi?

ANS. The reserve food material in fungi is Glycogen or oil globules.

4. What is diatomaceous earth?

ANS. Diatomaceous earth is made from the fossilized remains of tiny, aquatic organisms
called diatoms. Their skeletons are made of a natural substance called silica. Over a long
period of time, diatoms accumulated in the sediment of rivers, streams, lakes, and oceans.
5. What are red tides?
ANS. Red tide is the toxic bloom with red coloration of surface of sea by the effect of
dinoflagellate ie Gonyaulax. These dinoflagellates produce harmful toxins, kills the fishes
underneath and makes shellfish harmful to eat.

6. What is natural system of classification?

ANS. The natural system of classification is a type of classification in which properties such
as morphology, cytology (cell structure), phytochemistry(chemicals found in plants),
embryology, and anatomy are applied to find similarities and affinities among organisms.

7. What is artificial system of classification?

ANS. The artificial system of classification was based on the presence or absence of few
morphological or vegetative characteristics, that were used for grouping of organisms or
differentiating one group of an organism from another.

8. What are lichens?

ANS. Lichen is a symbiotic relationship among different organisms like fungus and algae.
The fungal part is called mycobiont and non-fungal part or algal part is called photobiont that
contains chlorophyll. The fungus with its root gets the water and minerals and algae using its
photosynthetic ability to produce food.

9. What are some uses of lichens?

ANS.
i. Lichens produce pigments and other secondary compounds that can be used as dyes.
ii. In some parts, they are used as delicacies and also in traditional medicine.
iii. Some lichens can also degrade polyester resins and pollutants like lead and copper.
iv. Air pollution leads to a decline in the lichen population and thus, they can be used as
indicator organisms.

10. Draw structure of bacterial cell?

 CHAPTER 3: PLANT KINGDOM
LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Explain different classes of Algae.

ANS.

2. Discuss the characteristic features of seedless vascular plants (Pteridophytes).

ANS.
i. Pteridophytes are considered as the first plants to be evolved on land: It is speculated
that life began in the oceans, and through millions of years of evolution, life slowly
adapted on to dry land. And among the first of the plants to truly live on land were the
Pteridophytes.
ii. They are cryptogams, seedless and vascular: Pteridophytes are seedless, and they
reproduce through spores. They contain vascular tissues but lack xylem vessels and
phloem companion cells.
iii. The plant body has true roots, stem and leaves: They have well-differentiated plant
body into root, stem and leaves.
iv. Spores develop in sporangia: The sporangium is the structures in which spores are
formed. They are usually homosporous (meaning: one type of spore is produced) and
are also heterosporous, (meaning: two kinds of spores are produced.)
v. Sporangia are produced in groups on sporophylls: Leaves that bear the sporangia are
termed as sporophylls. The tip of the leaves tends to curl inwards to protect the
vulnerable growing parts.
vi. Sex organs are multicellular: The male sex organs are called antheridia, while the
female sex organs are called archegonia.
vii. They show true alternation of generations: The sporophyte generation and the
gametophyte generation are observed in Pteridophytes. The diploid sporophyte is the
main plant body.
3. What are the salient features of gymnosperms? Explain in detail.
ANS. The word “Gymnosperm” comes from the Greek words “gymnos” (naked) and
“sperma” (seed), hence known as “Naked seeds.” Gymnosperms are the seed-producing
plants, but unlike angiosperms, they produce seeds without fruits. These plants develop on the
surface of scales or leaves, or at the end of stalks forming a cone-like structure.
Following are the important characteristics of gymnosperms:
i. They do not produce flowers.
ii. Seeds are not formed inside a fruit. They are naked.
iii. They are found in colder regions where snowfall occurs.
iv. They develop needle-like leaves.
v. They are perennial or woody, forming trees or bushes.
vi. They are not differentiated into ovary, style and stigma.
vii. Since stigma is absent, they are pollinated directly by the wind.
viii. The male gametophytes produce two gametes, but only one of them is functional.
ix. They form cones with reproductive structures.
x. The seeds contain endosperm that stores food for the growth and development of the
plant.
xi. These plants have vascular tissues which help in the transportation of nutrients and
water.
xii. Xylem does not have vessels and the phloem has no companion cells and sieve tubes.
Examples of gymnosperms: Cycas, Pinus, Araucaria, Thuja, Cedrus

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Draw the life cycle of Moss.
ANS.
2. Write the Economic significance of Bryophytes.
ANS. Bryophytes have great ecological importance. Mosses and lichens are the first
organisms to colonise rocks.
i. They decompose the rock making it suitable for the growth of higher plants. The acid
secreted by lichens, death and decay of mosses helps in soil formation
ii. Bryophytes grow densely so act as soil binders
iii. Mosses play an important role in bog succession. Mosses can change the landscape
from open soil to climax forest.
iv. They prevent soil erosion by reducing the impact of the falling rain
v. They reduce the amount of run-off water due to their water holding capacity
vi. They help in recycling of the nutrients
vii. They act as a rock builder.
viii. Peat formation: Sphagnum is also known as peat moss. Peat is formed by slowing
down the decaying process. The gradual compression and carbonisation of partially
decomposed vegetative matter in bogs give rise to a dark-coloured substance called
Peat. It is used as a fuel.

3. Write the Economic significance of Pteridophytes.

ANS. The first vascular type plants to evolve on land are pteridophytes.
i. Several ferns have been used as herbal medicine. An oil (5% Filmaron and 5-8%
Filicic acid) extracted from the rhizome of Aspidium is used as a vermifuge,
especially against tapeworm.
ii. Many species of pteridophytes are cultivated for their aesthetic value.
iii. Pteridophytes Used as Biofertiliser: Azolla is a free-floating water fern which can
multiply very quickly through vegetative propagation.
iv. Like angiosperms, pteridophytes are being used as indicator plants. Equisetum
accumulates minerals, especially gold, in their stem.
v. The stem of Equisetum was used for polishing wood in ancient times and to clean
utensils.
vi. The roots and stems of Osmunda are used to make beds for growing orchids.

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What are rhizoids?
ANS. Rhizoids are a filamentous outgrowth or root hair on the underside of the thallus in
some lower plants, especially mosses and liverworts, serving both to anchor the plant and (in
terrestrial forms) to conduct water.

2. Name two main groups of bryophytes?

ANS. Liverworts; Hornworts; Mosses
3. Why are bryophytes called amphibians of plants?
ANS. Bryophytes are called “amphibians of the plant kingdom” because they are terrestrial
plants, but require water to complete their life cycle at the time of sexual reproduction.

4. What is Protonema?
ANS. It's a stage that is creepy, green, branching, and frequently filamentous. In the life cycle
of mosses, it is a haploid, autonomous, gametophytic stage. It is made from spores and
produces new plants.
 CHAPTER 5: MORPHOLOGY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Define Flower. Describe parts of typical flower. Write the functions of the flower.

ANS. A flower can be defined as the reproductive unit of any angiosperms. Flowers carry out
sexual reproduction in angiosperms. A typical flower is generally an attractively modified stem
with a condensed axis.

A flower has four different parts, they are - calyx, corolla, androecium, and gynoecium. The
parts androecium and gynoecium contain the male and female reproductive organs of a flower
respectively.

The parts of typical angiospermic flowers are as follows-

> Calyx- The calyx is the outermost whorl of a flower. They mainly contain sepals. They are
green, and leaf like structures that cover and protect the flowers during the initial stage or bud
stage.

> Corolla- The corolla of a flower is a layer that is found inside the calyx. It contains beautifully
and attractively coloured petals. These petals help in alluring and attracting insects for
pollination.

> Androecium- It is the next part or whorl present after corolla. The androecium typically
consists of stamens, which are the male reproductive unit of a flower and is composed of two
parts - anther and filament. The anther is the bilobed structure with a stalk called filament. Inside
the anther, pollen grains are formed, which are transferred to another plant by pollination.

> Gynoecium- The gynoecium is the innermost part or whorl of a flower. It consists of pistils,
which are the female reproductive organs of flowers. A pistil is composed of three parts: stigma,
style and ovary.
 2. Give an account of the distinguishing feature of family Solanaceae. Give botanical
names of any four plants belonging to this family?
ANS. It is a large family commonly called as potato family.

Vegetative Characters
1. Stem: herbaceous rarely woody, aerial, erect, cylindrical, branched, solid or hollow, hairy or glabrous,
underground stem in potato.
2. Leaves: alternate, simple, rarely pinnately compound, exstipulate; reticulate venation.

Floral Characters
1. Inflorescence: Solitary, axillary or cymose as in Solanum.
2. Flower: bisexual, actinomorphic.
3. Calyx: sepals five, united persistent, valvate aestivation.
4. Corolla: petals five, united, valvate aestivation.
5. Androecium: stamens five, epipetalous.
6. Gynoecium: bicarpellary, syncarpous; superior ovary, bilocular, placenta swollen with many ovules.
7. Fruits: berry or capsule.
8. Seeds: Many, endospermous

Plants belonging to this family:

Brinjal (Solanum melongena); Potato (Solanum tuberosum); Tomato (Solanum lycopersicum);

Tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum)
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. What is inflorescence? What is the main difference between recemose and cymose
inflorescence?
ANS. An inflorescence is a group or cluster of flowers arranged on a stem that is composed of
a main branch or a complicated arrangement of branches. Morphologically, it is the modified
part of the shoot of seed plants where flowers are formed on the axis of a plant.

2. Explain any two types of racemose inflorescence.

ANS. Raceme: The main axis is unbranched, elongated and bears pedicellate flowers laterally
in acropetal succession. The older flowers present at the base have longer stalk as compared
to the upper younger flowers.

Examples: Brassica campestris (mustard), Raphanus sativus (radish)

Spike: The main axis is unbranched with unlimited growth as raceme but flowers are sessile,
i.e. without pedicel, directly attached to peduncle without a stalk

Examples: Piper longum (long pepper)

3. What is special types of inflorescence? Describe them with diagram and example.
ANS. Special types of the inflorescence are strictly neither racemose nor cymose. At the
same time, they have modified forms of the cymose type. They include hypanthodium,
verticillaster, and cyathium
 Cyathium – It has a highly reduced inflorescence. It contains a cup-shaped involucre
formed by the fusion of 5 bracts. (Ex. Euphorbia)
 Hypanthodium – It has a flask-shaped receptacle forming a hollow cavity. Also, it has
terminal pores surrounded by scales. (Ex. Ficus)
 Verticillaster – It is a special type of inflorescence seen in Lamiaceae. It is a
condensed form of a dichasial cyme with sub-sessile or sessile flowers. (Ex. Ocimum)

4. Discuss different types of Aestivation with examples.

ANS. Aestivation: It refers to the arrangement of floral parts such as petals and sepals in a
flower bud before it gets opened.
Types of aestivation:
 Valvate: In this type of aestivation, the sepals and petals do not overlap but touch each
other at their margins. Example: Calotropis and Lilac.
 Imbricate: In this type of aestivation, the sepals and petals overlap each other in the
nonspecific direction. Example: Cassia and Gulmohar.
 Twisted: In this type of aestivation, the sepals and petals overlap each other in one
specific direction. Example: china rose and cotton.
 Vexillary: It is also referred to as descending imbricate aestivation or papilionaceous
aestivation. In this type of aestivation, one large petal overlaps two lateral petals or
 wings which further overlaps two small anterior petals or keel. Example: peas and
beans.

5. Discuss different types of Placentation with examples.

ANS. Placentation: Placentation is the arrangement of ovules in the ovary of a plant. The
given diagram shows the types of placentation such as basal, apical, parietal, marginal, axial,
and free central.
1. Marginal: One elongated palcenta is located on one side of ovary. Ovules are attached at
the line of carpel's margin e.g., Legumes.
2. Axil: Carpels are folded inward with ovules placed along the central axis of ovary e.g.,
tomato.
3. Parietal: Ovules develop on the inner wall of the ovary e.g., Poppy.
4. Free-central: Ovule develop on the central axis while the septa are absent e.g., Dianthus.
5. Basal: The ovules are arranged at the base of the ovary e.g., sunflower.
6. Superficial: Ovules are attached entirely to the inner surface of the ovary e.g. Nymphea.
5. Discuss different types ovary in flowering plants.

ANS. Based on the position of the ovary flowers are categorized to 3 types they are Hypogynous,
Epigynous, and Perigynous flowers.
 Hypogynous: Flowers in which the sepals, petals, and stamens are attached below the ovary
are called hypogynous, and the ovaries of such flowers are said to be superior. Eg: tomato,
tulip, and snapdragon.
 Epigynous: Flowers in which the sepals, petals, and stamens appear to be attached to the upper
part of the ovary due to the fusion of the hypanthium are called epigynous, and the ovaries of
such flowers are said to be inferior. Eg: daffodil
 Perigynous: Flowers types in which the hypanthium forms a cuplike or tubular structure that
partly surrounds the ovary are called perigynous. In such flowers, the sepals, petals, and
stamens are attached to the rim of the hypanthium, and the ovaries of such flowers are
superior. Eg: cherry, Prunus

VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. What term is given to the arrangement of leaves of stem?
ANS. Phyllotaxy
2. What is Parthenocarpy?
ANS. Parthenocarpy is the production of fruits without the fertilisation of ovules. Fruits like
banana and figs are developed without fertilisation and do not produce any viable seeds.
 CHAPTER 6: ANATOMY OF FLOWERING PLANTS

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

Q1. Differentiate between internal structure of dicot stem and monocot stem.
ANS.

Q2. Draw the internal structure of dicot root and monocot root.
ANS.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS
1. Draw the diagram of Dicot Stem.

2. Draw the dorsi-ventral section of dicot leaf.

ANS.
3. Draw and explain Stomatal apparatus.
ANS. The stomatal apparatus is made up of the stomatal pore, guard cells, and surrounding
subsidiary cells. Guard cells keep the gaseous exchange going. Guard cells in dicots are bean-
shaped, whereas guard cells in monocots are dumbell-shaped. Small pores found in the
epidermis of leaves are called stomata.
 CHAPTER 11: PHOTOSYNTHESIS IN HIGHER PLANTS

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS

1. Describe chemiosmotic hypothesis of ATP formation?
ANS. The chemiosmotic hypothesis was proposed by Peter Mitchell. The ATP and NADPH2
generated during the light reaction is used for carbon dioxide fixation during the dark reaction.
According to the chemiosmotic hypothesis, ATP is produced by due to the proton gradient created
across the mitochondrial membrane. The essential components required for chemiosmosis are proton
pump, proton gradient and ATP synthase.
ATP synthase is an enzyme which helps in ATP synthesis. The enzyme ATP synthase has two part F0
and F1. F0 is the part which transports protons across the membrane as a transmembrane channel
while configuration changes in F1 activates the enzyme. They phosphorylate ADP i.e., add one more
phosphorus group to the ADP and converts ADP (adenosine diphosphate) to ATP (adenosine
triphosphate). The proton gradient developed across the membrane is the driving force of ATP
synthase.
2. Describe calvin cycle/C3 cycle.

ANS. Calvin cycle is the second phase of the photosynthetic reactions which occurs in the stroma of
the chloroplast.
There are 3 phases in this pathway. The first phase is carbon fixation. The enzyme RuBisCo is
responsible for the fixation of carbon dioxide which reacts with the primary acceptor RUBP
(Ribulose-1,5- bisphosphate). The first stable product is 3- PGA (3-phosphoglyceric acid).
The second step is reduction. 3-PGA is converted to glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). ATP and
NADPH are used for this reaction.
The third step is formation of the glucose molecule. Some of the molecules of G3P are used for the
formation of glucose.
The fourth step is regeneration. This is the step when certain molecules of G3P are used to regenerate
the RUBP for the next cycle.
3. Explain C4 pathway/hatch and slack pathway.

ANS. Hatch and Slack pathway is a cyclic process. The primary CO2 acceptor is a three-carbon
molecule phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) and it is present in mesophyll cells. The enzyme that catalyses
this CO2 fixation is PEP carboxylase or PEPcase.
The mesophyll cells pf C4 plants lack the enzyme RuBisCO. The 4-carbon oxaloacetic acid (OAA) is
formed in the mesophyll cells. It is then converted to other four-carbon compounds like malic acid or
aspartic acid in the mesophyll cells itself, these are then transported to the bundle sheath cells.
In the bundle sheath cells, these C4 acids are broken down to release CO2 and three-carbon molecule.
The CO2 released in the bundle sheath cells enters the C3 or the Calvin pathway. The bundle sheath
cells are rich in an enzyme RuBisCO but lack PEPcase. The three-carbon molecule is transported back
to the mesophyll cells where it is converted to PEP again, thus completing the cycle.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Difference between cyclic and non-cyclic photophosphorylation.
ANS.
2. Write a short note on Photorespiration.
ANS. Photorespiration is the process where the enzyme RuBisCO oxygenates RuBP with the
release of carbon dioxide.
i. It is also known as a wasteful process because it prevents the plant from using ATP and
NADPH to synthesize carbohydrate.
ii. It occurs in C3 plants and not in C4 plants.
iii. In C3 pathway, RUBP binds with oxygen and form phosphoglycolate and phosphoglycerate.
This reaction decreases the CO2 fixation.
iv. It occurs when the level of CO2 is low inside the leaf.
v. It occurs on a hot dry day to close stomata and prevent excess loss of water.
vi. It limits the damaging product of the light reaction of photosynthesis.
vii. It reduces the photosynthetic efficiency in C3 plant by 25%.

3. Differentiate between C3 and C4 Cycle.

ANS.
 CHAPTER 12: RESPIRATION IN PLANTS

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Explain major steps of glycolysis. Where does this process occurs in a cell?
ANS. Glycolysis is the process by which the conversion of glucose into pyruvic acid takes
place to release energy. This process takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. This process
might be aerobic or anaerobic. It is a process in which 10 reactions take place, which are
catalyzed by enzymes.
The steps involved in glycolysis are:
i. In the preparatory phase of glycolysis, under the effect of the hexokinase and other
enzymes, D-glucose is converted to fructose 6-phosphate with some rearrangements.
ii. Under the effect of the aldolase enzyme, fructose 1,6-bisphosphate is broken down to
dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (G3P).
iii. The last five steps of glycolysis are called the pay-off phase. G3P is converted to 1,3-
bisphosphoglycerate. After which, ATP and 3-phosphoenolglycerate are formed.
iv. One molecule of water is removed from 2-phosphoglycerate, and phosphoenol pyruvic
acid (PEP) is formed.
v. Finally, from PEP, pyruvate and ATP are formed.
2. Explain the main steps in the process of aerobic respiration in plant cell.

ANS. Aerobic respiration occurs in main four steps, namely glycolysis, link reaction, Krebs cycle and
terminal oxidation.
Glycolysis: It is partial oxidation of glucose to form two molecules of pyruvate, two NADH, and two
ATP. Glycolysis occurs in the cytoplasm.
Link Reaction: After entering mitochondria, pyruvate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation to form
acetyl CoA and NADH. CO2 is released.
Krebs Cycle: Acetyl CoA reacts with oxaloacetate. The product, citrate, undergoes two oxidative
decarboxylations and two dehydrogenations. Oxaloacetate is regenerated. The by-products are 3
NADH, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP or GTP and 2CO2. Krebs Cycle occurs inside mitochondria.
Terminal Oxidation: NADH and FADH are oxidized. The energy liberated during oxidation is used
in the synthesis of ATP and ADP and inorganic phosphate. Hydrogen is ultimately oxidized by
oxygen to form water. Terminal oxidation takes place over the inner membrane of mitochondria.
3. Give the illustrated account of kreb's cycle/ citric acid cycle.
ANS. The reactions which help in converting pyruvic acid to carbon dioxide and water in
mitochondria are called the Krebs cycle. It is also known as the citric acid or tricarboxylic acid cycle
(TCA cycle).
i. In the first reaction of the citric acid cycle, acetyl CoA combines with the oxaloacetic acid to
form citric acid. This reaction is catalyzed by citric acid synthetase.
ii. Citric acid contains three carboxylic acid groups. Citric acid is dehydrated to form cis-aconitic
acid in the presence of aconitase. The same enzyme aconitase catalyzes the formation of
isocitric acid from cis-aconitic acid by the addition of the molecule of water.
iii. Citric acid, cis-aconitic acid, and isocitric acid contain three carboxylic acid groups. The
isocitric acid is oxidatively decarboxylated to α−ketoglutaric acid. This reaction is catalyzed
by isocitric dehydrogenase.
iv. During this reaction, one NADH2 is formed. The α−ketoglutaric acid is oxidatively
decarboxylated to form succinyl Co-A. This reaction is catalyzed by α−Ketoglutaric
dehydrogenase. The energy released during this reaction is conserved in NADH2.
v. The succinyl-CoA is hydrolyzed to succinic acid in the presence of succinyl co-a synthetase.
In this reaction, ADP is phosphorylated to ATP. This is called substrate-level
phosphorylation. The succinic acid is oxidized to form fumaric acid
by succinic dehydrogenase. FAD+ is reduced to
vi. FADH2. The fumaric acid is converted to malic acid by the addition of a molecule of water.
This reaction is catalyzed by fumarase. The malic acid is oxidized to oxaloacetic acid by the
enzyme malic dehydrogenase.
4. Discuss Electron Transport system in detail.
ANS. ETS or electron transport system is located in the inner mitochondrial membrane. It helps in
releasing and utilizing the energy stored in NADH+H+ and FADH2.
i. NADH+H+ which is formed during glycolysis and the citric acid cycle gets oxidized by an
NADH dehydrogenase (complex I). The electrons so generated get transferred to ubiquinone
through FMN.
ii. In a similar manner, FADH2 (complex II) generated during the citric acid cycle gets
transferred to ubiquinone. The electrons from ubiquinone are received by cytochrome bc1
(complex III) and further get transferred to cytochrome c.
iii. The cytochrome c acts as a mobile carrier between complex III and cytochrome c oxidase
complex, containing cytochrome a and a3, along with copper centres (complex IV).
iv. During the transfer of electrons from each complex, the process is accompanied by the
production of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate by the action ATP synthase (complex
V).
v. The amount of ATP produced depends on the molecule, which has been oxidized. 3 ATP
molecules are produced by the oxidation of one molecule of NADH. One molecule of FADH2
, on oxidation, gives 2 ATP molecules.
SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. Differentiate between photosynthesis from respiration.
ANS.

2. Differentiate between Glycolysis and Kreb Cycle.

ANS.

3. What is oxidative phosphorylation?

ANS. Oxidative phosphorylation is a metabolic pathway of generating ATP molecule by
phosphorylation (addition of phosphate to an organic compound) of ADP. This process takes place in
the mitochondria of a cell during the electron transport chain. The ATP is formed as a result of the
transfer of electrons from NADH or FADH2 to O2 by a series of electron carriers.

4. What do you mean by respiratory quotient?

ANS. Respiratory Quotient is the ratio of the volume of carbon dioxide evolved to the volume of
oxygen consumed during respiration under standard temperature and pressure.
RQ= Vol of CO2 evolved / Vol of O2 consumed
It will be equal to 1 in the case of carbohydrates as-
C6H12O6+6O2→6CO2+Energy+H2O
RQ= 6CO2/6O2 = 1
 It will be less than 1 in the case of fats and proteins as-

Fats - C57H104O6+80O2→57CO2+52H2O
RQ= 576CO2/806O2 = 0.71

RQ of Protein: 0.9

5. Differentiate between aerobic and non-aerobic respiration.

ANS.
 CHAPTER 13: PLANT GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT

LONG ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Define growth. Name and explain different phases of growth with the help of growth
curve?
ANS. Growth is the most fundamental characteristic of all living organisms. It is an
irreversible and permanent metabolic process. Be it plants, animals, birds or an insect, every
simplest, as well as the most intricate living species, undergo the process of Growth-
increasing in size.
Phases of Growth in Plants
There are three phases of growth – meristematic, elongation and maturation. We can
understand this better by looking at a seed. We already know that the tips of roots and shoots
exhibit continuous growth and hence are meristematic. The cells in this region are rich in
protoplasm and have large nuclei. The cells next to this region represent the elongation
growth phase. In this region, there is the formation of new cell walls, vacuoles etc. The region
next to the elongation phase represents the maturation phase in which the cells attain their
maximal size.
There are two types of growth rates – Arithmetic and Geometric.
In arithmetic growth rate, out of the two daughter cells produced by the mitotic division of a
cell, only one daughter cell continues to divide while the other differentiates and matures.
In the case of the geometrical growth phase, the initial growth is slow and it increases rapidly
thereafter at an exponential rate. In this, both daughter cells retain their ability to divide. The
following curve represents the geometric growth phase:

2. What are the applications and physiological role of Auxin? Explain in detail.
ANS. Auxin is a plant hormone that plays critical physiological roles in cell elongation, apical
dominance, parthenocarpy, and other processes. It is essential for plant body development and
plays an important role in plant life cycles.
The physiological effects of auxin, which are functional effects, are as follows:

1. Apical dominance:
i. When the terminal bud of a mostly tall and sparsely branching vascular
plant is intact and growing, the growth of the lateral buds just below it
is suppressed.
ii. However, removing the apical buds causes the lateral buds to grow
extremely quickly. Apical dominance occurs when the apical bud
dominates the lateral bud and prevents it from growing.
2. Root initiation:
i. A greater concentration of auxins inhibits root elongation, but later
branch roots continue to grow, implying that the higher the
concentration of auxins, the greater the growth of lateral branch roots.
ii. Auxins initiate root growth. The use of AA in lanolin paste is very
important because it is used to form roots in economically useful plants
that are propagated by cuttings.
3. Parthenocarpy:
i. It is the process of developing fruits without fertilization, and these
fruits are known as parthenocarpic fruits.
ii. Auxin has the ability to stimulate the formation of these fruits.
4. Vascular differentiation:
i. Plant differentiation is induced by auxins, according to tissue culture
experiments.
ii. Because cytokines are known to participate in vascular differentiation,
it is influenced by both auxin and cytokinin.
5. Cell elongation:
i. Auxins' primary function is cell elongation, and they are well known to
promote stem and coleoptile elongation.
ii. It also encourages the elongation of cells behind the apical meristem.
When the concentration of auxin is higher on the shaded side, the cells
on that side elongate more quickly, bending the stem tip towards the
unilateral light.

3. What are Plant Hormones? What are the applications and physiological role of
Ethylene? Explain in detail.
ANS. Plant hormones: They are also known as plant growth substances, plant growth
regulators, and phytohormones. The plant growth regulators (PGRs) are small, simple
molecules of diverse chemical composition.

Ethylene is a gaseous phytohormone produced in huge quantities by tissues undergoing

senescence and ripening fruits.
Physiological effects of ethylene:

i. Seed and bud dormancy is broken by ethylene.

ii. Ethylene is an excellent ripening agent.
iii. During fruit ripening, ethylene increases the rate of respiration.
iv. Ethylene causes leaf and blossom senescence and abscission.
v. Ethylene triggers flowering and controls numerous physiological processes.
vi. Ethylene causes peanut seeds to germinate and potato tubers to sprout.
vii. Ethylene also helps plants improve their absorption surface by promoting root growth
and root hair synthesis.

SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:

1. Describe the role of Cytokinin in Agriculture.
ANS. Functions of Cytokinins
i. Break bud and seed dormancy.
ii. Promotes the growth of the lateral bud.
iii. They are used to keep flowers fresh for a longer time.
iv. Promotes nutrient mobilization that in turn assists delaying leaf senescence. Act as a
Anti-Ageing Hormone.
v. Helps in delaying the process of ageing (senescence) in fresh leaf crops like cabbage
and lettuce.
2. Describe the role of Gibberllins in Agriculture.
ANS. Functions of Gibberellins
i. Delay senescence in fruits.
ii. Involved in leaf expansion. Break bud and seed dormancy.
iii. Promote bolting in cabbages and beet.
iv. Facilitate elongation of fruits such as apples and enhance their shape. Helps in
increasing the crop yield by increasing the height in plants such as sugarcane and
increase the axis length in plants such as grape stalks.
v. In young conifers, utilized to fasten the maturity period and facilitate early seed
production.

3. Describe the role of Abscisic acid in Agriculture.

ANS. Functions of Abscisic acid
i. Stimulates closing of stomata in the epidermis. Act as a Stress Hormone.
ii. Helps in the maturation and development of seeds.
iii. Inhibits plant metabolism and seed germination.
iv. It is involved in regulating abscission and dormancy.
v. Induces seed-dormancy and aids in withstanding desiccation and various undesired
growth factors.
VERY SHORT ANSWER TYPE QUESTIONS:
1. Name two synthetic auxins used in agriculture.
ANS. NAA (naphthalene acetic acid) and 2,4 D (2,4 dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) are two
synthetic auxins used in agriculture.

2. What is respiratory climatic?

ANS. Respiratory climatic is referred to as the rise in the rate of respiration during the
ripening of fruits. The rise of respiration is sudden and sharp. It is associated with a plant
hormone known as ethylene. Ethylene is a gaseous plant growth regulator which is associated
with the ripening of the fruits.

3. What is apical dominance?

ANS. The buds that grow apically have a greater dominance over growth than the lateral
buds. Such a phenomenon is called apical dominance.