MODULE III

Computer Integrated
Manufacturing
Computer Integrated Manufacturing, known as
CIM, is the phrase used to describe the
complete automation of a manufacturing plant,
with all processes functioning under computer
control and digital information tying them
together.
Definition of CIM by the Computer and Automation
Systems Association of the Society of manufacturing
Engineers (CASA/SME):
“CIM is the integration of the total
manufacturing enterprise through the use of
integrated systems and data communications
coupled with new managerial philosophies that
improveorganizational personnel efficiency.”
 Computer Integrated
Manufacturing
• CIM is not a product that can be purchased and
installed.
• It is a way of thinking and solving problems.
• It is the use of integrated systems and data
communications coupled with new managerial
philosophies.
 CIM HARDWARE

CNC machine tools

Robotic work cells
DNC
FMS
Work & tool handling devices Storage
devices, inspection tools Computers,
CAD/CAM, printers,......
. APT
 BENEFITS OF CIM
• Tangible
• Higher Profits
• Reduced direct labour
• Reduced inventory
• Reduced scrap
• Reduced delivery delays
• Reduced factory capacity
• Reduced m/c utilization
• Reduced product development time
 BENEFITS OF CIM

Intangible
• Improved work environment
• Improved job security
• Improved employee morale
• Improved scheduling flexibility
• Improved Customer image
• More opportunities for skill upgradation.
Material
Handling
 Material Handling

“The movement, storage, protection and

control of materials throughout the
manufacturing and distribution process
including their consumption and
disposal”
(The Material Handling Industry of America)
 Material Handling

• Material handling is the function of

moving the right material to the right
place in the right time, in the right
amount, in sequence, and in the right
condition to minimize production cost.
• The material handling is estimated as
20-25% of total manufacturing labour
cost.
 Material Handling

Handling of materials must be performed

• Safely
• Efficiently
• At low cost
• In a timely manner
• Accurately (the right materials in the right
quantities to the right locations)
• Without damage to the materials
 Logistics

Material handling in larger systems

known as LOGISTICS.

Two categories of logistics:

External logistics
Internal logistics
 External Logistics

The transportationand related activities

that occur outside of a facility ( between
different geographical locations) is EL.

Five traditional modes of transportation:

Rail truck, air, ship, and pipeline
External Logistics
 Internal Logistics

It is the material handling and storage within

a facility and is more popularly known as
MH.
 Material handling equipments

Transport Equipment: industrial trucks,

Automated Guided vehicles (AGVs),
monorails, conveyors, cranes and hoists.
Storage Systems: bulk storage, rack
systems, shelving and bins, drawer
storage, automated storage systems.
Unitizing Equipment: palletizers.
Identification and Tracking systems
 Material Transport Equipments

Five categories:
• Industrial trucks
• Automated guided vehicles
• Monorails & other rail guided vehicles
• Conveyors
• Cranes and hoists
 Industrial Trucks

Two basic categories:

Non-powered:
Human workers push or pull loads.
Powered:
Self-propelled, guided or driven by human
Common example: forklift truck
Non powered Industrial Trucks
(Hand Trucks)

(a) Two-wheel hand truck, (b) four-wheel dolly,

(c) hand-operated low-lift pallet truck
Non powered Industrial Trucks
(Hand Trucks)
Hand Trucks
 Powered Trucks:
Walkie Truck

Wheeled forks insert into pallet openings.

No provision for riding; truck is steered by worker using control
handle at front of vehicle.
 Powered Trucks:
Forklift Truck

Widely used in factories and warehouses

because pallet loads are so common.
Capacities: 450 kg to 4500 kg.

Power sources :
board batteries and internal combustion
motors.
Powered Trucks:
Forklift Truck
 Powered Trucks:
Towing Tractor

Designed to pull one or more trailing carts in factories

and warehouses, as well as for airport baggage
handling.
Powered by on-board batteries or IC engines.
 Unit Load Containers

(a) Wooden pallet, (b) pallet box, (c) tote box

AGV
 Automated Guided Vehicles

An AutomatedGuided Vehicle system (AGVS)

is a material handling system that uses
independently operated, self- propelled vehicles
guided along defined pathways in the facility
floor.
 History of AGV’S

The first AGV was brought to market in the 1950s, by

Barrett Electronics of North brook, and at the time it was
simply a tow truck that followed a wire in the floor
instead of a rail. Over the years the technology has
become more sophisticated and today automated vehicles
are mainly Laser navigated ex: LGV.
Today the AGV plays an important role in the design of
new factories and warehouses.
 Types of AGVs

1. Driver less trains

2. Pallet trucks
3. Unit load AGVs.
 AGV:
Driver less Automated Guided Train

• It consists of a towing vehicle that pulls one or more

trailers to form a train.
• Common application is moving heavy payloads over
long distances in warehouses and factories without
intermediate stops along the route.
• It consists of 5-10 trailers and is an efficient
transport system.
 AGV:
Driver less Automated Guided Train
First type of AGVS to be
introduced around 1954
Common application is
moving heavy payloads
over long distances in
warehouses and factories
without intermediate stops
along the route
Driver less Automated Train
Driver less Automated Train
 AGV Pallet Truck
Used to movepalletized loads along
predetermined routes.

Vehicle is backed into loaded palletby

worker; pallet is then elevated from floor.

Worker drives pallettruck to AGVguide path

and programs destination
AGV Pallet Truck
AGV Pallet Truck
 Unit load carriers
• These are used to move unit loads from one
station to another.
• It is also used for automatic loading and
unloading of pallets by means of rollers.
• Load capacity ranges up to 250 kg or less.
• Especially these vehicles are designed to move
small loads.
Unit load
carriers
Unit load carrier
 AGVs Applications
Driverless train operations - Movement
of large quantities of material over long
distances.

Storage and distribution -

Movement of pallet loads between
shipping/receiving docks and storage racks
 AGVs Applications
Assembly line operations -
Movement of car bodies and major sub
assemblies (motors) through the assembly
stations.
Flexible manufacturing systems - Movement
of workparts between machine tools.
Miscellaneous -
Mail delivery and hospital supplies.
 AGVS Load Transfer
Load Transfer of the vehicle means
loading/unloading.
The two types of load transfer
operations are:

Manual Load Transfer

Automatic Loading and unloading

 AGVS Load Transfer
Manual Load Transfer:
Manually loading and unloading the Vehicle. Use
of forklift trucks, pallet trucks, roller, etc.
Manually coupling/uncoupling towed vehicles.

Automatic Loading and unloading:

Efficient system
Use of Powered roller, belt, and chain Powered
lift/lower devices, push/pull devices.
 Vehicle Guidance Technology
AGVs pathways are defined and vehicles
are controlled to follow the pathways.

Three main technologies:

1. Imbedded guide wires
2. Paint strips
3. Self-Guided Vehicles
 1. Imbedded guide wires
Electrical wiresare placed in a small
channel cut in to the surface of the floor.
The channel size is 3-12 mm wide ans 13- 26
mm deep.
 Imbedded guide wires
After the guide wire is installed, the channel is
filled with cement to eliminate the discontinuity
in the floor space.

The Guide wire is connected to a frequency

generator, which emits a low voltage, low
current signal with a frequency in the range of
1-15 kHz.
 Imbedded guide wires
The sensors follow the magnetic field
created along the pathway.
Two sensors (coils) are mounted on the
vehicle on either side of the guide wire.
 Imbedded guide wires
If the vehicle strays to one side or the other, or if
the guide wire path changes direction, the
magnetic field intensity at the two sensors will
become unequal.

This difference is used to control the steering

motor, which makes the required changes in the
vehicle direction.
Imbedded guide wires
 2. Paint strips
Paint strips are used to define the path ways.
Vehicles use Optical sensors to track the
paint strips.
 Paint strips
The strips can be taped, sprayed or painted on the
floor.
It is more useful in environments where electrical
noise renders the system or when the installation
of the wire in the floor surface is not practical.
The strips can may deteriorate with time.
It must be kept clean & periodically replaced.
 3. Self-Guided Vehicles

Self Guided Vehicles operate with out

defined path ways.

The movement is accomplished by

computing the required no. of wheel
rotations in a sequence of specified
steering angles.
 Self-Guided Vehicles

Vehicles use a combination of

Dead reckoning -
(Capability of a vehicle to follow the
given route in the absence of a defined
pathway).
Beacons-
located throughout facility -
 SGV

The path way networks can be expanded

by installing new beacons.
 Vehicle Management

For the AGVs to operate efficiently, the

vehicles must be well managed.
Delivery tasks must be allocated to
vehicles to minimize waiting times at
load/unload stations.
Traffic congestion must be minimized in
the in the guide path network.
 Vehicle Management

Two aspects of vehicle management:

Traffic control

Vehicle dispatching
 Vehicle Management

Traffic control:
To minimize interference between
vehicles and prevent collisions
1. On-board vehicle sensing
2. Zone control
 Vehicle Management

1. On-board vehicle sensing:

Uses one or more sensors on each
vehicle to detect the presence of other
vehicles and obstacles ahead on the
guide path.
More effective on straight path.
 2. Zone Control
In Zone control, the AGV layout is
divided in to separate zones.

The operating rule is that, no vehicle is

permitted to enter a Zone that is already
occupied by another vehicle.
 Zone Control

Zone control to implement blocking system.

Zones A, B, and D are blocked.
Zone C is free.

Vehicle 2 is blocked from entering Zone A by

vehicle 1. Vehicle 3 is free to enter Zone C.
 Zone Control
The length of the Zone is at least sufficient
to hold one vehicle plus allowance for
safety and other considerations.
Other considerations include, number of
vehicles in the system, size & complexity
of layout ...........
 Vehicle Management

Vehicle dispatching:

For AGVs to serve its function,

vehicles must be dispatched in a
timely and efficient manner.
 Vehicle Management

Several methods are used for

Vehicle dispatching:

1. On-board control panel

2. Remote call stations
3. Central computer control
 On-board control panel

Each vehicle is equipped with some form

of on-board control panel.

Vehicle programming and editing can be

done separately on each vehicle.
 Remote call stations

A hailing signal from the Remote call

station control the vehicles.
 Central Computer Control

• The Central computer control issues

commands to the vehicles.
• It must posses current information on the
location of each vehicle.
• Radio Frequency is used for the
communication.
 Vehicle Safety

The safety of human located along the

pathway is an important objective in
AGV system.
An inherent safety feature of an AGV is
that its traveling speed is slower than the
normal walking pace of a human.
 Vehicle Safety

Another feature is that- automatic stopping

of the vehicle, if it strays more than a short
distance.
(ie, 50-150 mm from the guide path)
 Vehicle Safety

An obstacle detection sensor located on

some vehicles.
This sensor can detect obstacles and the
vehicle may stop or slow down.
 Vehicle Safety

Fourth type is that an emergency bumper

fitted in front of the vehicle.
As this bumper touches / senses an object,
the vehicle brakes immediately.

Mechanical Bumpers
Electronic/Optical Laser Bumpers
 Mechanical Bumpers

They are typically made from flexible material

(plastic, metal of foam) that collapses and trips
a limit switch to stop AGV operation.

The detection zone of a mechanical bumper is

fixed and does not vary during vehicle
operation.
 Electronic/Optical Laser
Bumpers
Electronic bumpers are the most
popular form of obstacle they detection
because offer a flexible and
maintenance free. solution.
Electronic bumpers allows users to
define multiple down"programmable "slow-
and "stop" fields (obstacle
detection zone).
 Electronic/Optical Laser
Bumpers
The sizes and shapes of these bumper fields
can be changed during operation of the
automatic guided vehicle (AGV). In wide open
aisles, the bumper fields can be made large and
the vehicle can operate at a higher speed.
Similarly when the AGV is preparing to make
a turn, the bumper field can be offset to see
obstacles in that direction of travel.
 Vehicle Safety

Some other vehicles may have

warning light or warning bells.
 Rail-Guided Vehicles

Self-propelled vehicles that ride on a

fixed-rail system.

Vehicles operate independently and are

driven by electric motors that pick up
power from an electrified rail.
 Rail-Guided Vehicles

Fixed rail system:

Overhead monorail -
suspended overhead from the ceiling.
On-floor -
parallel fixed rails, tracks generally protrude
up from the floor.

Routing variations are also possible.

Overhead Monorail
 Conveyor Systems
Large family of material transport equipment
designed to move materials over fixed paths, usually
in large quantities or volumes
Non-powered:
Materials moved by human workers by pushing or by
gravity.
Powered:
Power mechanism for transporting materials is
contained in the fixed path, using chains, belts, rollers
or other mechanical devices.
Roller Conveyor
 Roller Conveyor

• Pathway consists of a series of rollers

that are perpendicular to direction of
travel.
• Loads must possess a flat bottom to
span several rollers
• Powered rollers rotate to drive the loads
forward.
• Un-powered roller conveyors also
available.
Skate-Wheel Conveyor
 Skate-Wheel Conveyor

Similar in operation to roller conveyor but

use skate wheels instead of rollers.

Lighter weight and non powered.

Sometimes built as portable units that can be

used for loading and unloading truck trailers
in shipping and receiving.
Belt Conveyor
 Belt Conveyor

• Continuous loop with forward path to

move loads
• Belt is made of reinforced elastomer.
• Support slider or rollers used to support
forward loop
Two common forms:
• Flat belt (shown in fig.)
• V-shaped for bulk materials
In-Floor Tow-Line Conveyor
 In-Floor Tow-Line Conveyor

Four-wheel carts powered by moving chains

or cables in trenches in the floor.

Carts use steel pins (or grippers) to project

below floor level and engage the chain (or
pulley) for towing.

This allows the carts to be disengaged from

towline for loading and unloading
Overhead Trolley Conveyor
 Overhead Trolley Conveyor

A trolley is a wheeled carriage running on an

overhead track from which loads can be
suspended.

Trolleys are connected and moved by a chain or

cable that forms a complete loop.
Often used to move parts and assemblies
between major production areas.
Cart-On-Track Conveyor
 Cart-On-Track Conveyor

• Carts ride on a track above floor level.

• Carts are driven by a spinning tube.

• Forward motion of cart is controlled by a

drive wheel whose angle can be changed
from zero (idle) to 45 degrees (forward).
 Cranes and Hoists
Cranes:
Used for horizontal movement of
materials.
Hoists:
Used for vertical lifting of materials.

Cranes usually include hoists so that the

crane-and-hoist combination provides
Horizontal transport , Vertical lifting and
lowering.
Hoists
Bridge Crane
 Gantry Crane

A half-gantry crane
Jib Crane
Automated Storage &
Retrieval Systems (AS/RS)
 What is AS/RS ?
It is a computer-controlled method of
storing and retrieving materials and
tools using racks, bins, and stackers.
With support from AGVs, an AS/RS can
receive and deliver materials without
the aid of human hands.
 Functions ofAS/RS
• Automatic storage of an item in a
predetermined location.
• Automatic removal of an item from a
storage location.
• Transportation of this item to a specific
processing or interface point.
• Automatic reception and processing of items
from a processing or interface point.
 AS/RS
It is a combination of equipments and
controls which handles, stores, and
retrieves materials with precision,
accuracy, and speed under a defined
degree of automation.
 Why AS/RS ?
• To increase storage capacity.
• To increase storage density.
• To recover factory floor space presently
used for storing work-in- process
(WIP).
• To improve security and reduce
pilferage.
• To reduce labor cost and/or increase labor
productivity in storage operation.
(contd........)
 Why AS/RS ?
• To improve safety in the storage
function.
• To improve control over inventories.
• To improve stock rotation.
• To improve customer service.
• To increase throughput.
 Components of
ASRS
• Storage structure
• Storage/Retrieval machine
• Storage module
• Pickup-and-deposit station.
Components and Terminology
 Storage structure
It is a rack frame work fabricated
from steel, which supports the loads
contained in the AS/RS. The structure
must posses sufficient strength &
rigidity.
Individual storage compartments are
fabricated.
AS/RS Rack structure
 Storage/Retrieval Machine
• Deliver loads from the input station to
storage.
• Retrieving loads from the storage and delivering
them to the output stations.
• Must be capable of horizontal & vertical travel.
• It consist of a rigid mast arm on which is mounted
an elevator system for the vertical motion of the
carriage.
• Wheels are attached at the base of the mast to permit
horizontal travel along a rail system.
 Storage/Retrieval Machine
A parallel rail at the top of the storage
structure is used to maintain alignment of
the mast and carriage with respect to rack
structure.
 Storage Modules
• Storage modules are unit load
containers.
• This includes pallets, steel wire
basket, containers.....
• Standard base size is followed.
 Pickup & Deposit Station
PD stations are located at opposite ends
of the storage aisle. The loads are
transferred into and out of the ASRS.
Typical AS/RS systems
 Types of ASRS

• Unit Load AS/RS.

• Mini Load AS/RS.
• Person on board AS/RS.
• Deep Lane AS/RS.
• Automated item retrieval system.
• Vertical lift storage module.
 Unit Load AS/RS

Large automated system designed to use

S/R machines to move unit loads on
pallets into and out of storage racks.
 Unit load
AS/RS
Storage
structure

S/R machine Storage

module

pickup-and-deposit station
 Mini Load AS/RS

• Handling of small loads/ individual

parts.
• Ideal for cases where space is
limited.
• Low volume productions.
• Smaller investment and greater
flexibility.
 Person on board AS/RS

Uses personnel to pick items from racks

or bins, reducing transaction time.
 Deep-Lane AS/RS
High-density unit load storage system,
designed to store large amounts of stock
with relatively little amounts of stock
types.
It generally stores ten or more
loads in a single rack with the
input on one side and output on
the other.
 Automated item retrieval
system

Items to be moved are stored in single

file lanes, rather than in bins or drawers.
 Vertical lift storage modules
Same principle of
using a
aisle center to
loads access is
except that the
used
aisle is vertical.
Helps to save floor
space.
 Control systems

A scheme based alpha-numeric codes

are used.
The S/R machines use optical scanners
to read the target and position the shuttle
for depositing or retrieving the load.
 Applications
▪ Warehouses
▪ Manufacturing
▪ Clean Rooms
▪ Libraries
▪ Hospitals
▪ Pharmaceuticals
▪ Grocery Distributer
Automatic
Identification and
Data Capture
 Data Capture

Data capture is the process of

collecting a set of data, ready for
processing by a computer.
 AIDC

AIDC refers to direct entry of data in to

a computer or other micro processor
controlled system with out using key
boards.
 AIDC

AIDC systems are used to manage

inventory, delivery, assets, security and
documents.
Sectors that use AIDC systems include
distribution, manufacturing,
transportation, government, medicine,
retail and many others.
 Applications
Material Handling:
Shipping and receiving, storage, sorting,
order picking.....
Manufacturing:
Monitoring the process of order, work in
process, m/c utilization, worker
attendance....
 Applications
Out side factory:
Retail sales inventory control, ware
housing and distribution centers, mail
and parcel handling, patient
identification in hospitals, banks, library,
security systems....
 Components

–Data Encoder
–M/c Reader or Scanner
–Data Decoder
 Data Encoder
An encoder is a device used to change a signal
or data into a code.
A code is a set of symbols or signals that
usually represent alphanumeric characters.
When data are encoded, the
characters are translated
into machine
readable code.
 M/c Reader or Scanner

This device reads the encoded data

converting them to alternative form,
usually an electrical analog signal.
 Data Decoder
The data decoder transform the
electrical signals in to digital data; finally
back into the original alphanumeric
characters.
 AIDC
Different technologies are used to implement
automated identification and data collection.
1. optical
2. electromagnetic
3. magnetic
4. Smart card
5. touch tecniques
6. biometric.
 OPTICAL
Using high contrast graphical symbols
that can be interpreted by an optical
scanner.
 ELECTROMAGNETIC
Using a small electronic tag capable of
holding more data is stored than a bar
code.
(Radio frequency identification
technology)
 MAGNETIC
Data stored/encoded magnetically
similar to a recording tape. Large
amount of data can be stored.
Eg: Credit cards, ATM cards.....
 SMART CARDS
Small plastic cards, similar to credit
card, imbedded with microchips capable
of containing large amount of data.
 TOUCH TECHNIQUES
These include touch screens, button
memory......
 BIOMETRIC
Used to identify humans or to interpret
vocal commands of humans.
Eg: Voice recognition, finger print
analysis, retinal eye scans...
 Barcode Technology
The first use of barcodes was to label
railroad cars, but they were not
commercially successful until they were
used to automate supermarket
checkout systems, a task for which they
have become almost universal.
 Barcode Technology

A barcode is an optical
machine-readable representation of
data, which shows data about the object
to which it is attached.
2 Forms of barcode
• Width modulated
• Height modulated
• In linear width-modulated bar code technology, the
symbol consists of a sequence of wide and narrow
coloured bars separated by wide and narrow spaces (the
coloured bars are usually black and the spaces are white
for high contrast).
• The pattern of bars and spaces is coded to represent
numeric or alphanumeric characters.
 Barcode Technology
Originally barcodes represented data
by varying the widths and spacing's of
parallel lines, and may be referred to as
linear or 1 dimensional (1D).
• Bar code readers interpret the code by scanning and decoding
the sequence of bars.
• The reader consists of the scanner and decoder.
• The scanner emits a beam of light that is swept past the bar
code (either manually or automatically) and senses light
reflections to distinguish between the bars and spaces.
• The light reflections are sensed by a photodetector, which
converts the spaces into an electrical signal and the bars into
absence of an electrical signal.
• The width of the bars and spaces is indicated by the duration
of the corresponding signals.
• The decoder analyses the pulse train to validate and interpret
the corresponding data.
 Barcode Technology
Barcodes originally were scanned by
special optical scanners called barcode
readers; later, scanners and interpretive
software became available on devices
including desktop printers and smart
phones.
Barcode readers are usually classified as contact or noncontact
readers.
Contact bar code readers are handheld wands or light pens
operated by moving the tip of the wand quickly past the bar
code on the object or document.
• The wand tip must be in contact with the bar code surface
or in very close proximity during the reading procedure.
Noncontact bar code readers focus a light beam on the bar
code, and a photodetector reads the reflected signal to interpret
the code.
• The reader probe is located a certain distance from the bar
code (several inches to several feet) during the read
procedure.
• Noncontact readers are classified as fixed beam and
moving beam scanners.
Fixed beam readers are stationary units that use a fixed beam of
light.
• They are usually mounted beside a conveyor and depend on the
movement of the bar code past the light beam for their
operation.
• Applications of fixed beam bar code readers are typically in
warehousing and material handling operations where large
quantities of materials must be identified as they flow past the
scanner on conveyors.
Moving beam scanners use a highly focused beam of light, often a
laser, actuated by a rotating mirror to traverse an angular sweep in
search of the bar code on the object.
• A scan is defined as a single sweep of the light beam through
the angular path. The high rotational speed of the mirror allows
for very high scan rates—up to 1,440 scans/sec.
• They are used in warehouses and distribution centers to
automate the product identification and sortation operations.
 Barcode Printers
The pre-printed bar codes are usually produced off-site by
companies specializing in these operations.
• The labels are printed in either identical or sequenced symbols.
• Printing technologies include traditional techniques such as
letterpress, offset lithography, and flexographic printing.
Bar codes can also be printed on-site by methods in which the
process is controlled by microprocessor to achieve individualized
printing of the bar coded document or item label.
• These applications tend to require multiple printers distributed at
locations where they are needed.
• The printing technologies used in these applications include
ink-jet,
• laser printing, and laser etching
 2D Barcodes
The advantage of 2-D codes is their capacity to store much
greater amounts of data at higher area densities.

Their disadvantage is that special scanning equipment is

required to read the codes, and the equipment is more
expensive than scanners used for conventional bar codes.

Two-dimensional symbologies divide into two basic types:

(1) Stacked bar codes
(2) Matrix symbologies.
 Stacked bar codes
• It was developed in an effort to reduce the area required for a
conventional bar code.
• The real advantage is that it can contain significantly greater
amounts of data.
• It consists of multiple rows of conventional linear bar codes
stacked on top of each other.
• The encoded data in a stacked bar code are decoded using
laser-type scanners that read the lines sequentially.
• The technical problems encountered in reading a stacked bar
code include
(1) keeping track of the different rows during scanning
(2) Dealing with scanning swaths that cross between rows
(3) detecting and correcting localized errors
(4) printing defects in the 2-D bar codes are also a problem.
 Matrix symbologies
• A matrix symbology consists of 2-D patterns of data cells that
are usually square and are coloured dark (usually black) or
white.
• Their advantage over stacked bar codes is their capability to
contain more data.
• They also have the potential for higher data densities.
• Their disadvantage compared to stacked bar codes is that they
are more complicated, which requires more sophisticated
printing and reading equipment.
• The symbols must be produced (during printing) and interpreted
(during reading) both horizontally and vertically; therefore, they
are sometimes referred to as area symbologies.
• Applications of the matrix symbologies are found in part and
product identification during manufacturing and assembly.
 Magnetic stripe
• Magnetic stripes attached to a product or container are
sometimes used for item identification in factory and
warehouse applications.
• A magnetic stripe is a thin plastic film containing small
magnetic particles whose pole orientations can be used to
encode bits of data into the film.
• The film can be encased in or attached to a plastic card or
paper ticket for automatic identification.
• Two advantages of magnetic stripes are their large data
storage capacity and the ability to alter the data contained
in them.
 Magnetic stripe
A magnetic stripe card is a type of card
capable of storing data by modifying the
magnetism of tiny iron-based magnetic
particles on a band of magnetic material on
the card.
 Magnetic stripe
The magnetic stripe, sometimes called
swipe card, is read by physical contact
and swiping past a magnetic reading
head.
Optical Character
Recognition
 Optical Character Recognition
• Optical character recognition, usually abbreviated to
OCR, is the mechanical or electronic translation of
scanned images of handwritten, typewritten or
printed text into machine-encoded text.

• OCR is a field of research in pattern recognition and

artificial intelligence.

• It is widely used to convert books and documents into

electronic files, to computerize a record-keeping
system in an office, or to publish the text on a
website.
 O C R Challenges
• Scene Complexity
• Conditions of Uneven Lighting
• Skewness (Rotation)
• Blurring and Degradation
• Aspect Ratios
• Tilting (Perspective Distortion)
• Fonts
• Multilingual Environments
• Warping
 O C R Phases
OCR consist of six major stages :
• Pre-processing
• Segmentation
• Normalization
• Feature Extraction
• Classification
• Post-processing
 Pre-processing
• The raw data is subjected to a number of
preliminary processing steps to make it
usable in the descriptive stages of character
analysis.
• Pre-processing aims to eliminate undesired
characteristics or noise in an image without
missing any significant information.
• It enhances the image and prepares it for the
next phases in OCR phases.
Pre-processing
 Segmentation
• Segmentation is the process of isolating text component
within an image from the image’s background.
• For appropriate reorganization of the editable text lines
from the recognized characters, firstly, segmenting the
line of text, then the words are segmented from the
segmented line and then from that the characters are
segmented.
Document segmentation is a major pre-processing phase
in implementing an OCR system. It is the process of
classifying a document image into homogeneous zones,
i.e., that each zone contains only one kind of information,
such as text, a figure, a table…
 Normalization
• As a result of segmentation process isolated
characters which are ready to move through
feature extraction phase are obtained, hence the
isolated characters are minimized to a particular
size depending on the algorithms used.

• Normalization is carried out by minimizing the

size and eliminating the unnecessary information
from the image without missing any influential
information .
 Feature extraction
• Feature extraction is the operation of extracting
the pertinent features from objects or alphabets
to build feature vectors.

• These feature vectors are then utilized by

classifiers to identify the input unit with
objective output unit.

• It becomes effortless for the classifier to classify

between dissimilar classes by glancing at these
features as it becomes fairly easy to determine
 Classification
• OCR systems broadly utilize the methodologies of pattern
recognition, which assigns each example to a predefined
class.

• Classification is the procedure of distributing inputs with

respect to detected information to their comparing class in
order to create groups with homogeneous qualities, while
segregating different inputs into different classes.

• Classification isolates the feature space into several

classes taking into account the decision rule.
 Post processing
• While pre processing tries to clean the record in a specific
sense, it might evacuate critical data, since the context data is
not accessible at this stage.
• On the off chance that the semantic data were accessible to a
specific degree, it would contribute a considerable measure to
the precision of the OCR stages.
• On the other hand, the whole OCR issue is for deciding the
context of the saved image.
• In this way the incorporation of context and shape data in all the
phases of OCR frameworks is vital for meaningful upgrades in
recognition rates.
• This is done in the Post processing stage with an input to the
early phases of OCR.
 O C R Applications
• Handwriting Recognition

• Receipt Imaging

• Legal Industry

• Banking

• Healthcare

• Captcha

• Automatic Number Plate Recognition

Group Technology
 Group Technology

Group Technology or GT is a
manufacturing philosophy in which the
parts having similarities (Geometry,
manufacturing process and/or function)
are grouped together to achieve higher
level of integration between the design
and manufacturing functions of a firm.
 Group Technology

The aim is to reduce work-in-progress and

improve delivery performance by
reducing lead times.
 Group Technology

GT is based on a general principle that

many problems are similar and by
grouping similar problems, a single
solution can be found to a set of problems,
thus saving time and effort.
 Machine Cell
The group of similar parts is known as
part family and the group of machineries
used to process an individual part family
is known as machine cell.

It is not necessary for each part of a part

family to be processed by every machine
of corresponding machine cell.
 Cellular Manufacturing
This type of manufacturing in which a
part family is produced by a machine cell
is known as cellular manufacturing.
The manufacturing efficiencies are
generally increased by employing GT.
 GT
• Group technology was introduced by
Frederick Taylor in 1919 as a way to
improve productivity.

• One of long term benefits of group

technology is it helps implement a
manufacturing strategy aimed at greater
automation.
GT

How can group

technology be
used in an
organization?
 GT
Group technology implementation can be
broken down into 3 different phases:

• Actions on the manufacturing process

• Changes to the production process
• Results for the organization
 Implementation Phases
Group technology has the following
actions on the manufacturing process:

–Part Simplification

–Process Standardization

–Production Control
 Implementation Phases

The changes that group technologies can

have on the production process.
• Tighter Parts Control
• Close physical layout of machine groups
• Orderings tied to production.
 Implementation Phases
The results that group technologies have
at the organizational level.
• Systematic design and redesign
• High-quality level
• Less process planning time and setup
time
 Impacts of Group Technology
Different impacts group technology has
on the production process:
• Reduced purchasing cost.
• Accurate cost estimation.
• Quicker design changes.
• Improved customer service.
The three steps of implementing
Group Technology:
• Analyzing the flow of parts through the
shop.
• Coding parts and then grouping them into
families based on their manufacturing
processes.
• Making machine group selections.
 Group technology machine cells

The traditional view of group technology

includes the concept of GT machine
cells-groups of machines arranged to
produce similar part families.
 Group technology machine cells

This cellular arrangement of production

equipment is designed to achieve an
efficient work flow within the cell. It
also results in labor and machine
specialization for the particular part
families produced by the cell.
 Benefits of G T

• Promotes standardization of tooling, fixturing

and setups.

• Material handling is reduced because the

distances within a machine cell are much
shorter than within the entire factory.

• Process planning and production scheduling

are simplified.
 Benefits of G T
• Setup time is reduced, reduced manufacturing
lead time.

• Work-in process reduced.

• Worker satisfaction improves.

• Work quality improves.

Obstacles for the application of G T
• Problem of rearranging the machines in the plant
into GT cells.

• Problem of identifying part families among the

many components produced in the plant.

• It is common for companies to encounter a general

resistance among its operating personnel when
changeover to a new system is contemplated.
Part Family
 Part Family

• A part family is a collection of parts which are

similar either because of geometric shape and
size or because similar processing steps or
because of similar material are required in their
manufacture.

• The parts within a family are different, but their

similarities are close enough to merit their
identification as members of the part family.
 Ways to Identify Part Families

[Link] inspection
• Least sophisticated and least expensive
judgment to group parts into appropriate
families.
• Done by looking at physical parts or photos
of the parts.
• Least accurate method
• This method is fast and simple and is useful
when the part mix is not complex.
 Ways to Identify Part Families

[Link] flow analysis

• PFA uses information contained on

production route sheets.
• It uses manufacturing data rather than design
data.
• The weakness of PFA is that the data used in
the technique are derived from existing
production route sheets.
 Ways to Identify Part Families

[Link] classification and coding

Identifying similarities and differences

among parts and relating them by
means of a coding scheme.
Reasons for using a coding scheme include:-
[Link] retrieval: A designer faced with the task of developing
a new part can use a design retrieval system to determine if a
similar part already exists. Simply changing an existing part
would take much less time than designing a whole new part
from scratch.

2. Automated process planning: The part code for a new part

can be used to search for process plans for existing parts with
identical or similar codes.

3. Machine cell design: The part codes can be used to design

machine cells capable of producing all members of a particular
part family
 Part Similarities

Two parts of part similarities:

i) Design attributes
Concerned with part characteristics such as
geometry, size, material ....

ii) Manufacturing attributes-

Considering the processing steps required to
make a part.
Part Classification
& Coding
 Part Classification & Coding
• This method of grouping parts into families
involves an examination of the individual
design and/or manufacturing attributes of
each part.
• The attributes of the part are uniquely
identified by means of a code number.
• This classification and coding may be carried
out on the entire list of active parts of the
firm, or a sampling process may be used to
establish the part families.
 Features of Part Classification &
Coding
The three general categories of Parts
classification and coding systems:

[Link] based on part design attributes.

[Link] based on part manufacturing
attributes.
[Link] based on both design and
manufacturing attributes.
Structures used in classification and coding
schemes:-
1. Hierarchical structure, also known as a monocode,
in which the interpretation of each successive
symbol depends on the values of the preceding
symbols
2. Chain-type structure, also known as a polycode, in
which the interpretation of each symbol in the
sequence is always the same; it does not depend
on the values of preceding symbols
3. Mixed-mode structure, a hybrid of the two
previous coding schemes.
 Part Design Attributes
❖ Major/Minor dimensions.
❖ Basic external shape.
❖ Basic internal shape.
❖ Rotational or rectangular shape.
❖ Length/diameter ratio.
❖ Aspect ratio.
❖ Material type.
❖ Part function.
❖ Tolerances.
❖ Surface finish.
 Part Manufacturing Attributes
❖ Major processes.
❖ Minor operations.
❖ Operation sequence.
❖ Batch size.
❖ Annual production.
❖ Production cycle time.
❖ Annual production.
❖ Machine tools.
❖ Cutting tools.
❖ Material type.
 Some of the important systems

❖ Opitz classification system

❖ Brisch System
❖ CODE
❖ CUTPLAN
❖ DCLASS
❖ MultiClass
❖ Part Analog System.
 The OPITZ classification system:

• It is a mixed (hybrid) coding system

• Developed by Opitz, Technical University of Aachen, 1970
• It is widely used in industry
• It provides a basic framework for understanding the
classification and coding process
• It can be applied to machined parts, non-machined
parts (both formed and cast) and purchased parts
• It considers both designand manufacturing
information
❖ The Opitz coding system consists of three groups of digits:

Form code Supplementary Secondary

code code
12345 6789 ABCD

part geometry information Production

and features relevant to processes and
relevant to part manufacturing production
design (polycode) sequences
 Opitz
System
Form code in Opitz system for rotational parts in cl a sses 3, and 4
Supplemental code in Opitz system
 The OPITZ classification
system

Example: A part coded 20801

2 - Parts has L/D ratio >= 3
0 - No shape element (external shape elements)
8 - Operating thread
0 - No surface machining
1 - Part is axial
The OPITZ classification
system
Example
 The OPITZ classification
system
Example: Given the part design shown define the "form
code" using the Opitz system
•Step 1: The total length of the part is 1.75, overall
diameter 1.25, L/D = 1.4 (code 1)
•Step 2: External shape - a rotational part that is stepped
on both with one thread (code 5)
•Step 3: Internal shape - a through hole (code 1)
•Step 4: By examining the drawing of the part (code 0)
•Step 5: No auxiliary holes and gear teeth (code 0)
•Code: 15100
MultiClass Classification System

▪ Developed by the Organization for Industrial Research (OIR).

▪ The system is relatively flexible, allowing the user company to
customize the classification and coding scheme to a large
extent to fit its own products and applications.
▪ Used for a variety of different types of manufactured items,
including machined and sheer metal parts, tooling, electronics,
purchased parts, assemblies and subassemblies, machine
tools, and other elements.
▪ MultiClass uses a hierarchical or decision-tree coding
structure.
First 18 digits of the Multiclass Classification and
Coding System:-
Digit 0 : Code system prefix.
Digit 1 : Main shape category.
Digit 2,3 : External and internal configuration.
Digit 4 : Machined secondary elements.
Digit 5,6 : Functional descriptors.
Digit 7-12 : Dimensional data.
Digit 13 : Tolerances.
Digit 14,15 : Material chemistry.
Digit 16 : Raw material shape.
Digit 17 : Production quantity.
Digit 18 : Machined element orientation.
MultiClass Coding System example –the rotational part
MultiClass code number for the rotational part