MODULE IV:

Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecosystems

• Conservation of Biodiversity and Ecosystems
• Biodiversity: levels and types; distribution; Biodiversity hotspots.
• Major ecosystem types and their basic characteristics;
Ecosystem services- classification and their significance.
• Threats to biodiversity and ecosystems.
• Major conservation policies: in-situ and ex-situ conservation
approaches; Major protected areas; the role of traditional
knowledge, community-based conservation; Gender and
conservation.
Biological diversity’ or biodiversity is that
part of nature which includes the differences
in genes among the individuals of a species,
the variety and richness of all the plant and
animal species at different scales in space,
locally, in a region, in the country and the
world, and various types of ecosystems, both
terrestrial and aquatic, within a defined area.
species richness
4 4
species evenness

25,25,25,25 6,12,70,12
Two main components to biodiversity – species richness and species evenness

•Species richness describes the number of different species present in an area

(more species = greater richness)

•Species evenness describes the relative abundance of the different species in

an area (similar abundance = more evenness)

High richness + high evenness = highest diversity.

 Ecosystem diversity is the variety of ecosystems within
Biodiversity a region or across the Earth. Ecosystem diversity takes
into account living organisms and their interactions
(biotic factors) as well as non-living components and
environmental conditions (abiotic factors). Ecosystem
diversity represents the broadest scale of biodiversity.

Species diversity is the variety of species in a certain

geographic area, within an ecosystem, or across the
biosphere

Variety of genes found within a single

species, population as well as genetic
differences between populations. Genetic
diversity provides the potential for a
species to adapt to environmental
changes.
Why is Diversity important:
Major ecosystem types and their basic characteristics.
A community of living things (plants, animals,
microbes) interacting with each other and their
physical environment (air, water, soil)
Major Ecosystem Types
Terrestrial Ecosystems
• Forests – rich in biodiversity,
regulate climate.

• Grasslands – dominated by
grasses, support grazing
animals.

• Deserts – hot/dry, water-

scarce, specialized
plants/animals.

• Tundra – cold, frozen soil,

short vegetation.
EVERYONE BE QUIET
• Aquatic Ecosystems
• Freshwater – rivers, lakes, wetlands (drinking water, fish).
• Marine – oceans, coral reefs (largest ecosystem, regulate oxygen & climate).
What are corals?

•Corals are tiny animals (not plants!) that live in colonies.

•They build hard skeletons of calcium carbonate and form

coral reefs.

•Coral reefs are often called “Rainforests of the Sea”

because they host huge biodiversity.

•They grow in warm, shallow, clear ocean waters.

Biodiversity Hotspots: Support ~25% of all marine species (fish, crabs, turtles).

Human Benefits: Food (fisheries)Coastal protection (reduce storm damage)Tourism &

recreation
 Can you give an example of a place where you think many
different species might live?"

Do you think some areas might have more species than

others? What factors could influence that?"

If we wanted to preserve our planet’s biodiversity and ecosystems, should we

focus on certain areas more than others?
Biodiversity hotspots

are regions that are both rich in

endemic species (species found
nowhere else on Earth) and have
experienced significant habitat
loss.

To qualify as a biodiversity
hotspot, a region must have at
least 1,500 species of vascular
plants as endemics and must
have lost at least 70% of its (e.g., Amazon Rainforest, Madagascar,
original habitat. Southeast Asia)
some key patterns:
look at a world map showing biodiversity hotspots, you would notice:

Tropical Latitude Bias: Most hotspots are located in the

tropics (near the equator), which is where conditions are
consistently favorable for a wide range of species.

Mountain Ranges and Islands: Hotspots often align with

mountainous regions (e.g., the Himalayas) or island
chains (e.g., the Philippines or Madagascar)

Coastal and River Basins: Hotspots often occur near

major river systems or coastlines, where rich ecosystems
thrive.
 Mountain Ranges
Variety: Different altitudes create multiple climates
and ecosystems (e.g., lower slopes may have
forests, while higher elevations may have alpine
meadows).
Isolation: Mountain ranges act as barriers, isolating
populations and promoting speciation (evolution of
new species).
Endemism: Species in mountain ranges can evolve
independently and become endemic (found only in
that specific area).
Microclimates: Different slopes and valleys create
a range of microclimates, offering diverse habitats
for a variety of species.
Islands
Geographic Isolation: Islands are isolated
from the mainland, allowing species to evolve
without competition from mainland species,
leading to unique species.
High Rate of Endemism: Isolated islands
often have a high number of endemic species
because species evolve in isolation over time.
Limited Space: The restricted space on
islands often forces species to adapt to
specific niches, increasing the chances of
specialized adaptations.
Islands
Adaptive Radiation: Species
often undergo adaptive
radiation on islands, where one
species diversifies into multiple
species to fill different
ecological roles.
Distinct Ecosystems: Islands
often host unique ecosystems
due to limited interaction with
other landmasses, fostering the
development of new ecological
interactions.
Tropical Latitude Bias
Latitude refers to the angular distance
of a point on Earth's surface north or
south of the Equator. At the Equator:
The latitude is 0°.

At the North Pole: The latitude is 90°N

(90 degrees North of the Equator).

At the South Pole: The latitude is 90°S

(90 degrees South of the Equator)
Tropical Latitude Bias
The tropics are regions of
the Earth that are located
between two specific
lines of latitude:

[Link] of Cancer:
Located at 23.5° North of
the Equator.

[Link] of Capricorn:
Located at 23.5° South of
the Equator.
 Longitude measures how far a place is from the
Prime Meridian (0° longitude), which is an imaginary
vertical line that runs from the North Pole to the South
Pole and passes through Greenwich, England.

Longitude is measured as the angle between a location and the Prime Meridian, but
instead of measuring north or south (like latitude), it measures how far east or west you
are from this Prime Meridian.

If you're east of the Prime Meridian, your longitude is a positive number (e.g., 30°E, which
means you are 30 degrees east of Greenwich). If you're west of the Prime Meridian, your
longitude is a negative number (e.g., 75°W, which means you are 75 degrees west of
Greenwich).
New York City: 40.7128° N (latitude) and 74.0060° W (longitude).

Itis 40.7128 degrees north of the Equator and 74.0060 degrees west of the Prime Meridian
New York City: 40.7128° N (latitude) and 74.0060° W
(longitude).

Itis 40.7128 degrees north of the Equator and 74.0060

degrees west of the Prime Meridian

(Technically speaking, 74.0060° W is equivalent to -

74.0060° longitude, which is 74.0060 degrees west of the
Prime Meridian. The "W" just tells us that New York City is
to the west of the Prime Meridian.)
why tropical areas are biodiversity hotspots:
Reason
Consistent Climate Tropical areas have stable, warm temperatures year-round,
promoting year-round growth and reproduction.
High Solar Energy Abundant sunlight supports photosynthesis, leading to a high
primary production that sustains diverse ecosystems.
High Rainfall Regular and heavy rainfall creates lush, green environments that
support complex food webs.
Complex Ecosystems Tropical regions have layered ecosystems (forest floor, understory,
canopy, emergent layer) supporting diverse species.
Long Evolutionary Stable climates have allowed species to evolve and specialize
History over millions of years, leading to high biodiversity.
Geographic Features Physical barriers like mountains and rivers lead to species
(Mountains, Rivers) isolation and speciation, increasing biodiversity.
VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY

• Environmental services from species and ecosystems are essential at global,

regional and local levels. Production of oxygen, reducing carbon dioxide,
maintaining the water cycle, protecting soil are important services.

• Forests are the main mechanism for the conversion of carbon dioxide into carbon
and oxygen. The loss of forest cover, coupled with the increasing release of
carbon dioxide and other gases through industrialization contributes to the
‘greenhouse effect’.

• also essential for preserving ecological processes, such as fixing and recycling of
nutrients, soil formation, circulation and cleansing of air and water, global life
support
 Consumptive use value
The direct utilization of timber, food, fuelwood, fodder by local communities.

Productive use value

Marketable goods.

The biotechnologist uses biorich areas to ‘prospect’ and search for potential genetic properties
in plants or animals that can be used to develop better varieties of crops that are used in
farming and plantation programs or to develop better livestock. To the pharmacist, biological
diversity is the raw material from which new drugs can be identified from plant or animal
products. To industrialists, biodiversity is a rich store-house from which to develop new
products. For the agricultural scientist the biodiversity in the wild relatives of crop plants is the
basis for developing better crops.
 Option value
Keeping future possibilities open for their use is called option value. It is
impossible to predict which of our species or traditional varieties of crops and
domestic animals will be of great use in the future.
Aesthetic value

• Biodiversity is a beautiful and wonderful aspect of nature. Sit in a forest and listen
to the birds. Watch a spider weave its complex web. Observe a fish feeding. It is
magnificent and fascinating.

• Knowledge and an appreciation of the presence of biodiversity for its own sake is
another reason to preserve it.

• Symbols from wild species such as the lion of Hinduism, the elephant of
Buddhism and deities such as Lord Ganesh, and the vehicles of several deities
that are animals, have been venerated for thousands of years. The ‘Tulsi’ has
been placed at our doorsteps for centuries.
 Ecosystem services
Examples
Nature’s Gifts Things we use directly Food, water, wood,
medicine
Nature’s Keeps balance and Clean air, less floods,
Protection keeps us safe cooler climate
Nature’s Joy Fun, beauty, and Parks, festivals,
culture relaxation
Nature’s Support Helps everything else Soil, bees, plant
work growth
THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY: HABITAT LOSS, POACHING OF
WILDLIFE, MAN-WILDLIFE CONFLICTS
Man has begun to overuse or misuse most of these natural ecosystems. Due to this
‘unsustainable’ resource-use, once productive forests and grasslands have been
turned into deserts and wasteland have increased all over the world. Mangroves
have been cleared for fuelwood and prawn farming, which has led to a decrease in
the habitat essential for breeding of marine fish. Wetlands have been drained to
increase agricultural land. These changes have grave economic implications in the
longer term.

The current destruction of the remaining large areas of wilderness habitats,

especially in the super diverse tropical forests and coral reefs, is the most important
threat worldwide to biodiversity.
 Poaching: Specific threats to certain animals are related to large economic benefits. Skin
and bones from tigers, ivory from elephants, horns from rhinos and the perfume from the
must deer are extensively used abroad. Bears are killed for their gall bladders. Corals and
shells are also collected for export or sold on the beaches of Chennai and Kanyakumari. A
variety of wild plants with real or at times dubious medicinal value are being over
harvested. The commonly collected plants include Rauvolfia, Nuxvomica, Datura, etc.
Collection of garden plants includes orchids, ferns and moss.

Why are bears killed for their gallbladder?

Bear bile has been used in traditional Asian medicine for thousands of years. It contains high
levels of ursodeoxycholic acid (UDCA) , is believed to help with liver and digestive problems in
humans
CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY: INSITU AND EX-SITU
In-situ conservation

Biodiversity at all its levels, genetic species and as intact ecosystems, can be best
preserved insitu by setting aside an adequate representation of wilderness as
‘Protected Areas’. These should consist of a network of National Parks and Wildlife
Sanctuaries with each distinctive ecosystem included in the network. Such a
network would preserve the total diversity of life of a region.
Project Tiger:
Project Tiger was launched by the Government of India
with the support of WWF-International in 1973 and was
the first such initiative aimed at protecting this key species
and all its habitats. Project Tiger was initiated in nine Tiger
Reserves in different ecosystems of the country covering
an area of 16339 sq km. By 2001 the number of Tiger
Reserves increased to 27, covering an area of 37761 sq
km. The tiger count climbed from 268 in 1972 in the nine
Tiger Reserves, to around 1500 in 1997 in the 23 Tiger
Reserves. The Project tiger recognized the fact that tigers
cannot be protected in isolation, and that to protect the
tiger, its habitat needed to be protected.
Project Elephant:
Project Elephant was launched in 1992
to ensure the long-term survival of a
viable population of elephants in their
natural habitats in north and
northeastern India and south India. It is
being implemented in 12 States. In spite
of this, our elephant herds are at threat
as their habitat is shrinking and their
migration routes are disrupted by
human activities.
 Wildlife Sanctuary National Parks
Protect specific animal species and Conserve entire ecosystems,
their habitats. including all flora and fauna.
Moderate level of protection with High level of protection with strict
some regulated human activities restrictions on human activities.
allowed.
More accessible to the public with Tourism is tightly regulated and may
fewer restrictions; allows regulated be restricted to certain areas; some
tourism. areas may be off-limits.
Boundaries can be altered with Boundaries are fixed and cannot be
relative ease changed without government
approval.
 Ex-situ conservation
Conservation of a species is best done by protecting its habitat along with all the other
species that live in it in nature. This is known as in-situ conservation, which is
conserving a species in its own environment by creating National Parks and Wildlife
Sanctuaries. However, there are situations in which an endangered species is so close to
extinction that unless alternate methods are instituted, the species may be rapidly
driven to extinction. This strategy is known as ex-situ conservation, i.e. outside its
natural habitat in a carefully controlled situation such as a botanical garden for plants or
a zoological park for animals, where there is expertise to multiply the species under
artificially managed conditions. These breeding programs for rare plants and animals
are however more. Zoo, botanical garden, aquariums, seed-banks.
Crocodile Conservation:
Crocodiles have been threatened as their skin is
used for making leather articles. This led to the
near extinction of crocodiles in the wild in the
1960s in India. A Crocodile Breeding and
Conservation Program was initiated in 1975 to
protect the remaining population of crocodilians
in their natural habitat and by creating breeding
centers. It is perhaps one of the most successful
ex situ conservation breeding projects in the
country. Crocodiles have been extensively bred
in over 30 captive breeding centers, zoos and
other sites where successful breeding takes
place. Thousands of crocodiles of all three
species have been bred and restocked in 20
natural water bodies.
Module-4