1

Chapter 1

Introduction to Communication

How did humans develop the ability to communicate? Are humans the only creatures on earth
that communicate? What purpose does communication serve in our lives? Answers to these
historical, anthropological, and social-scientific questions provide part of the diversity of
knowledge that makes up the field of communication studies. As a student of communication,
you will learn that there is much more to the field than speaking, even though the origins of
communication studies are traced back thousands of years to ancient Greek philosophers and
teachers like Plato and Aristotle who were the first to systematically study and write about
speech. Communication students and scholars also study basic communication processes like
nonverbal communication, perception, and listening, as well as communication in various
contexts, including interpersonal, group, intercultural, and media communication.

Communication has been called the most practical of the academic disciplines. Even the most
theoretical and philosophical communication scholars are also practitioners of communication,
and even though you have likely never taken another communication studies class, you have a
lifetime of experience communicating. This experiential knowledge provides a useful foundation
and a starting point from which you can build the knowledge and practice the skills necessary to
become a more competent and ethical communicator.

Whether you stay on this path for a semester or for much longer, studying communication has
the potential to enrich your life in many ways. I want this book to be a dialogue, so I encourage
you to contact me with any questions, comments, or suggestions you may have as you read.
 2

Communication: History and Forms

Before we dive into the history of communication, it is important that we have a shared
understanding of what we mean by the word communication. For our purposes in this book, we
will define communication as the process of generating meaning by sending and
receiving verbal and nonverbal symbols and signs that are influenced by multiple
contexts. This definition builds on other definitions of communication that have been
rephrased and refined over many years. In fact, since the systematic study of communication
began in colleges and universities a little over one hundred years ago, there have been more than
126 published definitions of communication. In order to get a context for how communication
has been conceptualized and studied, let’s look at a history of the field.

A Brief History of Communication

While there are rich areas of study in animal communication and interspecies communication,
our focus in this book is on human communication. Even though all animals communicate, as
human beings we have a special capacity to use symbols to communicate about things outside
our immediate temporal and spatial reality. For example, we have the capacity to use abstract
symbols, like the word education, to discuss a concept that encapsulates many aspects of
teaching and learning. We can also reflect on the past and imagine our future. The ability to
think outside our immediate reality is what allows us to create elaborate belief systems, art,
philosophy, and academic theories. It’s true that you can teach a gorilla to sign words like food
and baby, but its ability to use symbols doesn’t extend to the same level of abstraction as ours.
However, humans haven’t always had the sophisticated communication systems that we do
today.

Some scholars speculate that humans’ first words were onomatopoetic. You may remember from
your English classes that onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like that to which they
refer—words like boing, drip, gurgle, swoosh, and whack. Just think about how a prehistoric
human could have communicated a lot using these words and hand gestures. He or she could use
gurgle to alert others to the presence of water or swoosh and whack to recount what happened
on a hunt. In any case, this primitive ability to communicate provided an evolutionary
advantage. Those humans who could talk were able to cooperate, share information, make better
tools, impress mates, or warn others of danger, which led them to have more offspring who were
 3

also more predisposed to communicate. This eventually led to the development of a “Talking
Culture” during the “Oral Era.” During this 150,000-year period of human existence, ranging
from 180,000 BCE to 3500 BCE, talking was the only medium of communication that humans
had, aside from gestures.

The beginning of the “Manuscript Era,” around 3500 BCE, marked the turn from oral to
written culture. This evolution in communication corresponded with a shift to a more settled,
agrarian way of life. As hunter-gatherers settled into small villages and began to plan ahead for
how to plant, store, protect, and trade or sell their food, they needed accounting systems to keep
track of their materials and record transactions. While such transactions were initially tracked
with actual objects that symbolized an amount—for example, three pebbles represented three
measures of grain—symbols, likely carved into clay, later served as the primary method of record
keeping. In this case, three dots might equal three measures of grain.

During this period, villages also developed class systems as more successful farmers turned
businessmen prospered and took leadership positions. Religion also became more complex, and
a new class of spiritual leaders emerged. Soon, armies were needed to protect the stockpiled
resources from others who might want to steal it. The emergence of elite classes and the rise of
armies required records and bookkeeping, which furthered the spread of written symbols. As
clergy, the ruling elite, and philosophers began to take up writing, the systems became more
complex. The turn to writing didn’t threaten the influential place of oral communication,
however. During the near 5,000-year period of the “Manuscript Era,” literacy, or the ability to
read and write, didn’t spread far beyond the most privileged in society. In fact, it wasn’t until the
1800s that widespread literacy existed in the world.

The end of the “Manuscript Era” marked a shift toward a rapid increase in
communication technologies. The “Print Era” extended from 1450 to 1850 and
was marked by the invention of the printing press and the ability to mass-
produce written texts. This 400-year period gave way to the “Audiovisual
Era,” which only lasted 140 years, from 1850 to 1990, and was marked by the
invention of radio, telegraph, telephone, and television. Our current period, the “Internet Era,”
has only lasted from 1990 until the present. This period has featured the most rapid dispersion
of a new method of communication, as the spread of the Internet and the expansion of digital
and personal media signaled the beginning of the digital age.
 4

The evolution of communication media, from speaking to digital technology, has also influenced
the field of communication studies. To better understand how this field of study developed, we
must return to the “Manuscript Era,” which saw the production of the earliest writings about
communication. In fact, the oldest essay and book ever found were written about
communication. Ancient Greek philosophers and scholars such as Aristotle theorized about the
art of rhetoric, which refers to speaking well and persuasively. The study of rhetoric focused
on public communication, primarily oratory used in discussions or debates regarding laws and
policy, speeches delivered in courts, and speeches intended to praise or blame another person.
The connections among rhetoric, policy making, and legal proceedings show that
communication and citizenship have been connected since the study of communication began.

Ancient Greek rhetoricians like Aristotle contributed to the field of rhetoric by introducing
theories of persuasion, which include Ethos, Pathos,
and Logos. Ethos (from which we get the word ethics)
relates to the speaker’s credibility, trustworthiness, and
good intentions. Pathos (from which we get the word
pathetic) is the art of appealing to the listener’s emotions,
and Logos (from which we get the word logic) is
Aristotle 384 - 322 BCE Cicero 106 BCE
1 persuasion based on logic and sound reasoning. Let’s take
the example of an ad for a new car:

Pathos – appeals to your Logos – appeals to reason – the Ethos – reliable car, built to
emotions (keeping your logical choice. last.
kids safe).
 5

Forms of Communication

Forms of communication vary in terms of participants, channels used, and contexts. The five
main forms of communication, all of which will be explored in much more detail in this book, are
intrapersonal, interpersonal, group, public, and mass communication. This book is designed to
introduce you to all these forms of communication. If you find one of these forms particularly
interesting, you may be able to take additional courses that focus specifically on it. You may even
be able to devise a course of study around one of these forms as a communication major. In the
following we will discuss the similarities and differences among each form of communication,
including its definition, level of intentionality, goals, and contexts.

Intrapersonal Communication
Intrapersonal communication is communication with oneself
using internal vocalization or reflective thinking. Like other forms
of communication, intrapersonal communication is triggered by
some internal or external stimulus. We may, for example,
communicate with our self about what we want to eat due to the
internal stimulus of hunger, or we may react intrapersonally to an event we witness. Unlike other
forms of communication, intrapersonal communication takes place only inside our heads. The
other forms of communication must be perceived by someone else to count as communication.
So, what is the point of intrapersonal communication if no one else even sees it?

Intrapersonal communication serves several social functions. Internal vocalization, or talking to

ourselves, can help us achieve or maintain social adjustment. For example, a person may use
self-talk to calm himself down in a stressful situation, or a shy person may remind herself to
smile during a social event. Intrapersonal communication also helps build and maintain our self-
concept. We form an understanding of who we are based on how other people communicate with
us and how we process that communication intrapersonally.

Sometimes we communicate intrapersonally for the fun of it. I’m sure we have all had the
experience of laughing aloud because we thought of something funny. We also communicate
intrapersonally to pass time. I bet there is a lot of intrapersonal communication going on in
waiting rooms all over the world right now. In both of these cases, intrapersonal communication
 6

is usually unplanned and doesn’t include a clearly defined goal. We can, however, engage in
more intentional intrapersonal communication. In fact, deliberate self-reflection can help us
become more competent communicators as we become more mindful of our own behaviors. For
example, your internal voice may praise or scold you based on a thought or action.

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is communication between

people whose lives mutually influence one another.
Interpersonal communication builds, maintains, and ends our
relationships, and we spend more time engaged in
interpersonal communication than the other forms of communication. Interpersonal
communication occurs in various contexts and is addressed in subfields of study within
communication studies such as intercultural communication, organizational communication,
health communication, and computer-mediated communication. After all, interpersonal
relationships exist in all those contexts.

Interpersonal communication can be planned or unplanned, but since it is interactive, it is

usually more structured and influenced by social expectations than intrapersonal
communication. Interpersonal communication is also more goal oriented than intrapersonal
communication and fulfills instrumental and relational needs. In terms of instrumental needs,
the goal may be as minor as greeting someone to fulfill a morning ritual or as major as conveying
your desire to be in a committed relationship with someone. Interpersonal communication
meets relational needs by communicating the uniqueness of a specific relationship. Since this
form of communication deals so directly with our personal relationships and is the most
common form of communication, instances of miscommunication and communication conflict
most frequently occur here. Couples, bosses and employees, and family members all have to
engage in complex interpersonal communication, and it doesn’t always go well. In order to be a
competent interpersonal communicator, you need conflict management skills and listening
skills, among others, to maintain positive relationships.
 7

Group Communication
Group communication is communication among three
or more people interacting to achieve a shared goal. You
have likely worked in groups in high school and college,
and if you’re like most students, you didn’t enjoy it. Even
though it can be frustrating, group work in an academic
setting provides useful experience and preparation for
group work in professional settings. Organizations have been moving toward more team-based
work models, and whether we like it or not, groups are an integral part of people’s lives.
Therefore, the study of group communication is valuable in many contexts.

Group communication is more intentional and formal than interpersonal communication.

Unlike interpersonal relationships, which are voluntary, individuals in a group are often
assigned to their position within a group. Additionally, group communication is often task
focused, meaning that members of the group work together for an explicit purpose or goal that
affects each member of the group. Goal-oriented communication in interpersonal interactions
usually relates to one person; for example, I may ask my friend to help me move this weekend.
Goal-oriented communication at the group level usually focuses on a task assigned to the whole
group; for example, a group of people may be tasked to figure out a plan for moving a business
from one office to another.

You know from previous experience working in groups that having more communicators usually
leads to more complicated interactions. Some of the challenges of group communication relate to
task-oriented interactions, such as deciding who will complete each part of a larger project. But
many challenges stem from interpersonal conflict or misunderstandings among group members.

Public Communication

Public communication is a sender-focused form of communication in

which one person is typically responsible for conveying information to
an audience. Public speaking is something that many people fear, or at
least don’t enjoy. But, just like group communication, public speaking is
an important part of our academic, professional, and civic lives. When
compared to interpersonal and group communication, public communication is the most
 8

consistently intentional, formal, and goal-oriented form of communication we have discussed so

far.

Public communication, at least in Western societies, is also more sender focused than
interpersonal or group communication. It is precisely this formality and focus on the sender that
makes many new and experienced public speakers anxious at the thought of facing an audience.
One way to begin to manage anxiety toward public speaking is to begin to see connections
between public speaking and other forms of communication with which we are more familiar
and comfortable. Despite being formal, public speaking is very similar to the conversations that
we have in our daily interactions. For example, although public speakers don’t necessarily
develop individual relationships with audience members, they still have the benefit of being face-
to-face with them so they can receive verbal and nonverbal feedback.

Mass Communication

Public communication becomes mass communication when it is transmitted to many people

through print or electronic media. Print media such as newspapers and magazines continue to be
an important channel for mass communication, although they have suffered much in the past
decade due in part to the rise of electronic media. Television, websites, blogs, and social media
are mass communication channels that you probably engage with regularly. Radio, podcasts, and
books are other examples of mass media. The technology required to send mass communication
messages distinguishes it from the other forms of communication. A certain amount of
intentionality goes into transmitting a mass communication message since it usually requires
one or more extra steps to convey the message. This may involve pressing “Enter” to send a
Facebook message or involve an entire crew of camera people, sound engineers, and production
assistants to produce a television show. Even though the messages must be intentionally
 9

transmitted through technology, the intentionality and goals of the person actually creating the
message, such as the writer, television host, or talk show guest, vary greatly. The president’s
State of the Union address is a mass communication message that is very formal, goal oriented,
and intentional, but a president’s verbal gaffe during a news interview is not. Mass
communication differs from other forms of communication in terms of the personal connection
between participants. Even though creating the illusion of a personal connection is often a goal
of those who create mass communication messages, the relational aspect of interpersonal and
group communication isn’t inherent within this form of communication. Unlike interpersonal,
group, and public communication, there is no immediate verbal and nonverbal feedback loop in
mass communication. Of course you could write a letter to the editor of a newspaper or send an
e-mail to a television or radio broadcaster in response to a story, but the immediate feedback
available in face-to-face interactions is not present. With new media technologies like Twitter,
blogs, and Facebook, feedback is becoming more immediate. Individuals can now tweet directly
“at” (@) someone and use hashtags (#) to direct feedback to mass communication sources. Many
radio and television hosts and news organizations specifically invite feedback from
viewers/listeners via social media and may even share the feedback on the air.

The technology to mass-produce and distribute communication messages brings with it the
power for one voice or a series of voices to reach and affect many people. This power makes mass
communication different from the other levels of communication. While there is potential for
unethical communication at all the other levels, the potential consequences of unethical mass
communication are important to consider. Communication scholars who focus on mass
communication and media often take a critical approach in order to examine how media shapes
our culture and who is included and excluded in various mediated messages.

The Communication Process

Communication is a complex process, and it is difficult to determine where or with whom a
communication encounter starts and ends. Models of communication simplify the process by
providing a visual representation of the various aspects of a communication encounter. Some
models explain communication in more detail than others, but even the most complex model
still doesn’t recreate what we experience in even a moment of a communication encounter.
Models still serve a valuable purpose for students of communication because they allow us to see
 10

specific concepts and steps within the process of communication, define communication, and
apply communication concepts. When you become aware of how communication functions, you
can think more deliberately through your communication encounters, which can help you better
prepare for future communication and learn from your previous communication. The three
models of communication we will discuss are the linear, interactive, and transactional
models.

In communication models, there are senders and receivers of messages in a communication

encounter. The message is the verbal or nonverbal content being conveyed from sender to
receiver. For example, when you say “Hello!” to your friend, you are sending a message of
greeting that will be received by your friend.

The internal cognitive process that allows participants to send,

receive, and understand messages is the encoding and
decoding process. Encoding is the process of turning
thoughts into a form of communication. Decoding is the
process of turning a form of communication into thoughts. For
example, you may realize you’re hungry and encode the following message to send to your
roommate by saying: “I’m hungry. Do you want to start dinner?” As your roommate receives the
message, he decodes your communication and turns it back into thoughts in order to make
meaning out of it. Of course, we don’t just communicate verbally— we have various options, or
channels for communication. Encoded messages are sent through a channel, or a sensory route
on which a message travels, to the receiver for decoding. While communication can be sent and
received using any sensory route (sight, smell, touch, taste, or sound), most communication
occurs through visual (sight) and/or auditory (sound) channels. Noise is anything that
interferes with the transmission of a message. It can be literal noise (like the roar of traffic) or it
can be psychological or physiological (like being distracted or hard of hearing). Let’s take the
example above: you think to yourself (intrapersonal communication) that you are hungry. You
turn that thought into a message that you (the sender) want to communicate to your roommate
(the receiver). You choose verbal communication (channel) and encode the message as “I’m
hungry. Do you want to start dinner?” Your roommate has headphones on can’t hear you (noise)
so may need to get his attention by waving your hands (nonverbal communication). Your
roommate then then decodes the message into thought and responds, now becoming the sender
 11

and you the receiver.

Linear Model of Communication

The linear model of communication describes communication as a linear, one-way process in

which a sender intentionally transmits a message to a receiver. Think of how a radio message is
sent from a person in the radio studio to you listening in your car. The sender is the radio
announcer who encodes a verbal message that is transmitted by a radio tower through
electromagnetic waves (the channel) and eventually reaches your (the receiver’s) ears via an
antenna and speakers in order to be decoded. The radio announcer doesn’t really know if you
receive his or her message or not, but if the equipment is working and the channel is free of
static, then there is a good chance that the message was successfully received.

The Linear Model of Communication

Since this model is sender and message focused, responsibility is put on the sender to help
ensure the message is successfully conveyed. This model emphasizes clarity and effectiveness,
but it also acknowledges that there are barriers to effective communication. Noise is anything
that interferes with a message being sent between participants in a communication encounter.
Even if a speaker sends a clear message, noise may interfere with a message being accurately
received and decoded. Environmental noise is any physical noise present in a communication
encounter. Other people talking in a crowded diner could interfere with your ability to transmit a
 12

message and have it successfully decoded. While environmental noise interferes with the
transmission of the message, semantic noise refers to noise that occurs in the encoding and
decoding process when participants do not understand a symbol. To use a technical example, FM
antennae can’t decode AM radio signals and vice versa.

Likewise, most French speakers can’t decode Swedish and vice versa. Semantic noise can also
interfere in communication between people speaking the same language because many words
have multiple or unfamiliar meanings.

Although the linear model may seem simple or even underdeveloped to us today, the creation of
this model allowed scholars to examine the communication process in new ways, which
eventually led to more complex models and theories of communication that we will discuss more
later.

Interactive Model of Communication

The interactive model of communication describes communication as a process in which

participants alternate positions as sender and receiver and generate meaning by sending
messages and receiving feedback within physical and psychological contexts. Rather than
illustrating communication as a linear, one-way process, the interactive model incorporates
feedback, which makes communication a more interactive, two-way process. Feedback includes
messages sent in response to other messages. For example, your instructor may respond to a
point you raise during class discussion or you may point to the sofa when your roommate asks
you where the remote control is. The inclusion of a feedback loop also leads to a more complex
understanding of the roles of participants in a communication encounter. Rather than having
one sender, one message, and one receiver, this model has two sender-receivers who exchange
messages. Each participant alternates roles as sender and receiver in order to keep a
communication encounter going. Although this seems like a perceptible and deliberate process,
we alternate between the roles of sender and receiver very quickly and often without conscious
thought.

The interactive model is also less message focused and more interaction focused. While the
transmission model focused on how a message was transmitted and whether or not it was
received, the interactive model is more concerned with the communication process itself. In fact,
this model acknowledges that there are so many messages being sent at one time that many of
 13

them may not even be received. Some messages are also unintentionally sent. Therefore,
communication isn’t judged effective or ineffective in this model based on whether or not a
single message was successfully transmitted and received.

The Interactive Model of Communication

Transactional Model of Communication

As the study of communication progressed, models expanded to account for more of the
communication process. Many scholars view communication as more than a process that is used
to carry on conversations and convey meaning. We don’t send messages like computers, and we
don’t neatly alternate between the roles of sender and receiver as an interaction unfolds. We also
can’t consciously decide to stop communicating, because communication is more than sending
and receiving messages. The transactional model differs from the linear and interactive models
in significant ways, including the conceptualization of communication, the role of sender and
receiver, and the role of context.

The transactional model of communication describes communication as a process that changes

over time, in which communicators generate social realities within social, relational, and cultural
contexts. In this model, we don’t just communicate to exchange messages; we communicate to
create relationships, form intercultural alliances, shape our self-concepts, and engage with
others in dialogue to create communities. In short, we don’t communicate about our realities
communication helps to construct our realities.
 14

The roles of sender and receiver in the transactional model of communication differ significantly
from the other models. Instead of labeling participants as senders and receivers, the people in a
communication encounter are referred to as communicators. Unlike the interactive model,
which suggests that participants alternate positions as sender and receiver, the transactional
model suggests that we are simultaneously senders and receivers. For example, on a first date, as
you send verbal messages about your interests and background, your date reacts nonverbally.
You don’t wait until you are done sending your verbal message to start receiving and decoding
the nonverbal messages of your date. Instead, you are simultaneously sending your verbal
message and receiving your date’s nonverbal messages. This is an important addition to the
model because it allows us to understand how we are able to adapt our communication—for
example, a verbal message—in the middle of sending it based on the communication we are
simultaneously receiving from our communication partner.

The Transactional Model of Communication

Changes
Over Time
 15

Communication Principles
Taking this course will change how you view communication. Most people admit that
communication is important, but it’s often in the back of our minds or viewed as something that
“just happens.” Putting communication at the front of your mind and becoming more aware of
how you communicate can be informative and have many positive effects. When I first started
studying communication as an undergraduate, I began seeing the concepts we learned in class in
my everyday life. When I worked in groups, I was able to apply what I had learned about group
communication to improve my performance and overall experience. I also noticed interpersonal
concepts and theories as I communicated within various relationships. Whether I was analyzing
mediated messages or considering the ethical implications of a decision before I made it,
studying communication allowed me to see more of what was going on around me, which
allowed me to more actively and competently participate in various communication contexts. In
this section, as we learn the principles of communication, I encourage you to take note of aspects
of communication that you haven’t thought about before and begin to apply the principles of
communication to various parts of your life.

Communication Is a Process
Communication is a process that involves an interchange of verbal and/or nonverbal messages
within a continuous and dynamic sequence of events. When we refer to communication as a
process, we imply that it doesn’t have a distinct beginning and end or follow a predetermined
sequence of events. It can be difficult to trace the origin of a communication encounter, since
communication doesn’t always follow a neat and discernible format, which makes studying
communication interactions or phenomena difficult. Any time we pull one part of the process out
for study or closer examination, we artificially “freeze” the process in order to examine it, which
is not something that is possible when communicating in real life. But sometimes scholars want
to isolate a particular stage in the process in order to gain insight by studying, for example,
feedback or eye contact. Doing that changes the very process itself, and by the time you have
examined a particular stage or component of the process, the entire process may have changed.
These snapshots are useful for scholarly interrogation of the communication process, and they
can also help us evaluate our own communication practices, troubleshoot a problematic
 16

encounter we had, or slow things down to account for various contexts before we engage in
communication.

We have already learned, in the transactional model of communication, that we communicate

using multiple channels and send and receive messages simultaneously. There are also messages
and other stimuli around us that we never actually perceive because we can only attend to so
much information at one time. The dynamic nature of communication allows us to examine
some principles of communication that are related to its processual nature. Next, we will learn
that communication messages vary in terms of their level of conscious thought and intention,
communication is irreversible, and communication is unrepeatable.

Communicators cannot avoid responsibility for the effects of what they say by claiming they
didn’t “intend” for their communication to cause an undesired effect. Communication has short-
and long-term effects, which illustrates the next principle we will discuss—communication is
irreversible.

The dynamic nature of the communication process also means that communication is
irreversible. After an initial interaction has gone wrong, characters in sitcoms and romantic
comedies often use the line “Can we just start over?” As handy as it would be to be able to turn
the clock back and “redo” a failed or embarrassing communication encounter, it is impossible.
Miscommunication can occur regardless of the degree of conscious thought and intention put
into a message. For example, if David tells a joke that offends his coworker Beth, then he can’t
just say, “Oh, forget I said that,” or “I didn’t intend for it to be offensive.” The message has been
sent and it can’t be taken back. I’m sure we have all wished we could take something back that
we have said. Conversely, when communication goes well, we often wish we could recreate it.
However, in addition to communication being irreversible, it is also unrepeatable.

If you try to recreate a good job interview experience by asking the same questions and telling
the same stories about yourself, you can’t expect the same results. Even trying to repeat a
communication encounter with the same person won’t feel the same or lead to the same results.
We have already learned the influence that contexts have on communication, and those contexts
change frequently. Even if the words and actions stay the same, the physical, psychological,
social, relational, and cultural contexts will vary and ultimately change the communication
encounter. Have you ever tried to recount a funny or interesting experience to a friend who
 17

doesn’t really seem that impressed? These “I guess you had to be there” moments illustrate the
fact that communication is unrepeatable.

Communication Is Guided by Culture and Context

As we learned earlier, context is a dynamic component of the
communication process. Culture and context also influence how
we perceive and define communication. Western culture tends to
put more value on senders than receivers and on the content
rather the context of a message. These cultural values are reflected
in our definitions and models of communication. As we will learn in later chapters, cultures vary
in terms of having a more individualistic or more collectivistic cultural orientation. The United
States is considered an individualistic culture, where emphasis is put on individual expression
and success. Japan is considered a collectivistic culture, where emphasis is put on group
cohesion and harmony. These are strong cultural values that are embedded in how we learn to
communicate. In many collectivistic cultures, there is more emphasis placed on silence and
nonverbal context. Whether in the United States, Japan, or another country, people are
socialized from birth to communication in culturally specific ways that vary by context. In this
section we will discuss how communication is learned, the rules and norms that influence how
we communicate, and the ethical implications of communication.

Rules and Norms

Earlier we learned about the transactional model of communication and the powerful influence
that social context and the roles and norms associated with social context have on our
communication. Whether verbal or nonverbal, mediated or interpersonal, our communication is
guided by rules and norms. Rules are systems of interaction that are codified, or established by
someone. An example of a communication rule is raising your hand when you want to speak
(established by your professor). Norms, by contrast, are systems of interaction that are
established by convention. An example is saying “Excuse me” when you bump into someone.

Relationship Level Meaning vs Content Level Meaning

Our communication is often guided by considerations other than conveying an explicit message.
For example, we greet a friend by saying, “Hi, how are you?” The response is usually, “Fine,
thanks. How are you?” We are not really asking after the person’s health (it would be silly for
 18

them to answer by telling you all about their recent toothache). What we are doing is obeying
the norm of greeting by asking how they are when what we are really communicating is a “glad to
see you.” If we meet a new friend we might say, “Want to go get a coffee?” Again, we don’t really
want a coffee, we want to communicate that we would like to get to know them better. These two
forms of communication are described as content level and relationship level meaning. Content
level is actually what is being said in the message (Want to get a coffee?). Relationship level
meaning is what is intended by the content level meaning (I would like to get to know you
better).

Communication Is Integrated into All Parts of Our Lives

Communication is an integral part of our lives. Whether we are talking to ourselves, to someone
else, or listening to the radio, we are communicating. Someone once said, “We cannot not
communicate.” Very true. The more we learn about good communication, the better
communicators we can become. The better communicators we become, the better we know
ourselves and the better we can get along with our fellow humans.