Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202

Quantum Physics and

Electronic Sensors
e-Learning Material

Subject Code: BPHYEC102/202

Module 1 Quantum Physics

Module 2 Electrical Properties of Metals and
Semiconductors

Dr. Praveen Kumar R S [Link]., [Link]., Ph.D.,

HOD, Department of Physics
VEMANA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
Affl: Visvesvaraya Technological University
(VTU), Bangalore- 560 034

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
De Broglie Hypothesis
The duality of light made de Broglie to propose a hypothesis known as de
Broglie hypothesis of matter waves, which states as follows.

If radiation (light) behaves as waves in some circumstances and as

particles at other circumstances, then one can even expect that entities which
ordinarily behave as particles to exhibit properties attributable to only waves
under appropriate circumstances. OR

Since radiation behaves as both waves and particles, the material

particles like electrons must also behave as waves under suitable conditions.

According de Broglie, a particle of mass m, moving with a speed v can behave

h
like a wave of wavelength λ = where h is Planck’s constant.
mv

Expression for de Broglie wavelength.

Consider an electron of mass ‘𝑚’ accelerated by a potential difference 𝑉.

The energy gained by the electron is 𝑒𝑉.
If 𝑣is the velocity of the electron, then we can write,
1
𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 2 ............. (1)
2

If 𝑝 is the momentum of the particle, then,

𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣
Squaring both sides, we get,
𝑝2 = 𝑚2 𝑣 2 --------(2)
𝑝2
Or = 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑚
𝑃2 1
Or = 𝑚𝑣 2
2𝑚 2
1
From equation (1), 𝑒𝑉 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2
𝑝2
Therefore, = 𝑒𝑉
2𝑚
𝑝 = √2𝑒𝑉𝑚 ............. (3)
ℎ
De-Broglie wavelength is 𝜆 = ........... (4)
𝑝

Substituting for P from equation (3) in (4), we get,

h
𝜆 = ............ (5)
√2eVm

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
Equation (5) represents the de-Broglie wavelength of an accelerated electron.

For an electron, e=1.6x10-19C and m=9.1x10-31kg, h=6.625x10-34J-

[Link] these values in equation (5), we get,
6.625×10−34
𝜆 =
√2×1.6×10−19 V9.1×10−31

1.226𝑛𝑚
𝜆 = … … … . (6)
√V

Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle and its physical significance

“In any simultaneous determination of the position and momentum of a

particle, the product of the corresponding uncertainties present in the
ℎ
measurement is equal to or greater than ”
4𝜋

Mathematically, the uncertainty principle can be written as,

ℎ
𝛥𝑥 𝛥𝑝 ≥
4𝜋
Where, 𝛥𝑥is the uncertainty (error) in the measurement of particle’s position
and 𝛥𝑝 is the uncertainty (error) in the measurement of momentum of the
particle.

Similarly, “In any simultaneous determination of the energy and time in a

physical process, the product of the corresponding uncertainties present in the
ℎ
measurement is equal to or greater than ”
4𝜋

ℎ
𝛥𝐸 𝛥𝑡 ≥
4𝜋
And also, “In any simultaneous determination of angular momentum and
angular displacement in a physical process, the product of the corresponding
ℎ
uncertainties present in the measurement is equal to or greater than ”
4𝜋

ℎ
𝛥𝐿 𝛥𝜃 ≥
4𝜋

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
Physical significance:

1. In quantum mechanics, one should not think of the exact position or an

accurate value of momentum, instead, one should think of the probability
of finding the particle at a certain position, or of the probable value of the
momentum of the particle.
2. It helps us to understand several phenomena related to sub – atomic
particles.

wave function.

In general waves are associated with quantities which vary periodically. In case
of matter waves, the quantity which varies periodically is called as wave
function(𝜓). If we consider a single particle whose wave function is 𝜓 then,
|𝜓|2 is the probability per unit volume that the particle will be found at the given
point and|𝜓|2 is also called as probability density.

Physical significance of wave function:

The wave function is a complex quantity. The probability of finding the particle
described by the wave function 𝝍 at a point in space and at a time 𝑡 is
proportional to the value of |𝜓|2 at that point at time 𝑡. A large value of|𝜓|2
represents larger probability of finding the particle. The probability of finding
the particle is zero at a point when |𝜓|2 = 0 at that point. As probability is a
single valued function, 𝜓 must be a single valued function at every point in
space. It also provides information about the momentum and energy of the
particle at any instant of time.

Probability density:

Let 𝜏 be a volume inside which a particle is known to be present, but where

exactly the particle is situated inside 𝜏 is not known. Then the probability of
finding the particle in a certain element of volume 𝑑𝜏 of 𝜏 is given by|𝜓|2 𝑑𝜏.
For this reason |𝜓|2 is called the probability density.

Therefore Probability density is given by, |𝜓|2 = 𝜓 ∗ 𝜓

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Normalization:

If ψ is the wave function associated with a particle, and then |𝜓|2 𝑑𝜏 is the
probability of finding the particle in a volume d𝜏. Since the total probability of
finding the particle anywhere in space is always finite, we write,

∫ 𝜓 2 𝑑𝜏 = 1

The above condition is called as normalization condition.

Set up time independent Schrodinger wave equation for free particle in one
dimension.

Let the equation of the de-Broglie wave which is associated with a particle of
mass ‘𝑚’ and velocity ‘𝑣’ is given by,

ψ= 𝐴𝑒 𝑖(𝑘𝑥−𝜔𝑡) ..............(1)

Where, ψ is the total wave function, 𝐴 is a constant, 𝜔 is the angular frequency

and 𝑖 = √−1.

The time independent part of the equation (1) is,

𝜓 = 𝐴𝑒 𝑖𝑘𝑥

∴ ψ = 𝜓𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 … (2)

Differentiating equation (2) twice 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑥, we get,

𝑑2ψ −𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑2𝜓
=𝑒 … (3)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑥 2
Differentiating equation (2) twice 𝑤. 𝑟. 𝑡. 𝑡, we get,

𝑑2ψ
2
= −𝜔2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝜓 … (4)
𝑑𝑡
But the equation of a travelling wave is,

𝑑2𝑦 1 𝑑2𝑦
=
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2
Where, 𝑦 is the displacement and 𝑣 is the velocity of the wave.

Therefore, the equation of the de-Broglie wave becomes,

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
𝑑2ψ 1 𝑑2ψ
= ................ (5)
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣 2 𝑑𝑡 2

Substituting equations (3) and (4) in (5), we get,

−𝑖𝜔𝑡
𝑑2𝜓 1
𝑒 2
= 2
− 𝜔2 𝑒 −𝑖𝜔𝑡 𝜓
𝑑𝑥 𝑣
𝑑2𝜓 𝜔2
=− 2𝜓
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣
If 𝜆and γbe the wavelength and frequency of the wave, then,

𝑑2𝜓 𝜔2
=− 2𝜓
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑣
(2𝜋γ)2
=− 𝜓
(γ𝜆)2

4𝜋 2
=− 2 𝜓
𝜆
1 1 1 𝑑2𝜓
=− ( ) ............. (6)
𝜆2 4𝜋2 𝜓 𝑑𝑥 2

1 𝑝2
But,𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = , where 𝑝is momentum.
2 2𝑚

ℎ 𝑝2 ℎ 2 1 ℎ2
But, 𝑝 = , ⟹ 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = =( ) × =
𝜆 2𝑚 𝜆 2𝑚 2𝑚𝜆2

1
Substituting for from equation (6) in the above equation, we get,
𝜆2

ℎ2 ℎ2 1 1 𝑑2𝜓
∴ 𝐾𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 = = × − 2 ( ) 2 … (7)
2𝑚𝜆2 2𝑚 4𝜋 𝜓 𝑑𝑥

Let 𝑉 be the potential energy of the particle. Then total energy 𝐸 of the particle
is,

𝐸 = 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 + 𝑝𝑜𝑡𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦

ℎ2 1 1 𝑑2𝜓
𝐸= × (− 2 ( ) 2 ) + V … (8)
2𝑚 4𝜋 𝜓 𝑑𝑥

The Schrodinger’s time independent equation in one dimension is,

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
𝑑2𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
= − 2 (E − V)𝜓
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ
𝑑 2 𝜓 8𝜋 2 𝑚
+ (E − V)𝜓 = 0 … (9)
𝑑𝑥 2 ℎ2
Application of Schrodinger wave equation:

Energy Eigen values of a particle in one dimensional, infinite potential

well (potential well of infinite depth) or of a particle in a box.
Y-Axis

V= V=0 V=

Particle x=0
 x x=a
X-Axis
X-Axis
x=0
x x =a

Consider a particle of a mass ‘m’ free to move in one dimension along positive
x -direction between x =0 to x =a. The potential energy outside this region is
infinite and within the region is zero. The particle is in bound state. Such a
configuration of potential in space is called infinite potential well. It is also
called particle in a box. The Schrödinger equation outside the well is

d 2 8 2 m
 E     0 → (1) ∵V = ∞
dx 2 h2

For outside, the equation holds good if ψ = 0 & |ψ|² = 0. That is particle cannot
be found outside the well and also at the walls

The Schrodinger’s equation inside the well is:

d 2 8 2 m
 E  0 → (2) ∵V = 0
dx 2 h2

h2 d 2
  E → (3)
8 2 m dx 2

This is in the form Ĥψ = Eψ

This is an Eigen-value equation.

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202

8 2 m
Let E  k 2 in eqn (2)
h2

d 2
2
 k 2  0
dx

The solution of this equation is:

ψ = C cos k x + D sin k x → (4)

at x = 0 → ψ = 0

0 = C cos 0 + D sin 0

∴C=0

Also x = a → ψ = 0

0 = C cos ka + D sin ka

But C = 0

∴D sin ka = 0 (5)

D0 (because the wave concept vanishes)

i.e. ka = nπ where n = 0, 1, 2, 3, 4… (Quantum number)

n
k= → (6)
a

Using this in eqn (4)

n
 n  D sin x → (7)
a

which gives permitted wave functions.

To find out the value of D, normalization of the wave function is to be done.

a

i.e.   n2 dx  1 → (8)
0

using the values of ψn from eqn (7)

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
n
a

D xdx  1
2
sin 2
0
a
1  cos(2n / a ) x 
a
D2   dx  1
0    1  cos 2 
2  sin 2    
D2 
a a
2 n   2 
  dx   cos xdx  1
2 0 0
a 
2 n 
a
D2  a
2  x  2n sin a x   1
0

D2
a  0  1
2
D2
a 1
2
2
D
a

Hence the normalized wave functions of a particle in one dimensional infinite

potential well is:

2 n
n  sin x → (9)
a a

Energy Eigen values:

From Eq. 6 & 2

8 2 m n 2 2
Ek  2
2

h2 a
n2h2
Implies E
8ma 2

Wave functions, probability densities and energy levels for particle in an

infinite potential well:

Let us consider the most probable location of the particle in the well and its
energies for first three cases.

Case I → n=1

It is the ground state and the particle is normally present in this state.

The Eigen function is

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202

2 
ψ1= sin x ∵from eqn (7)
a a

ψ1 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a

But ψ1 is maximum when x = a/2.

1 1
2

x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a

The plots of ψ1 versus x and | ψ1|2 verses x are shown in the above figure.

|ψ1|2 = 0 for x = 0 and x = a and it is maximum for x = a/2. i.e. in ground state
the particle cannot be found at the walls, but the probability of finding it is
maximum in the middle.

The energy of the particle at the ground state is

h2
E1 = = E0
8ma 2

Case II → n=2

In the first excited state the Eigen function of this state is

2 2
ψ2 = sin x
a a

ψ2= 0 for the values x = 0, a/2, a.

Also ψ2 is maximum for the values x = a/4 and 3a/4.

These are represented in the graphs.

| ψ2|2 = 0 at x = 0, a/2, a, i.e. particle cannot be found either at the walls or at

a 3a
the centre.  2  maximum for x  , x
2

4 4

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202

ψ2 | ψ2|2
a/4 3a/4
a/4
3a/4
x=0 a/2 x=a x=0 a/2 x=a

The energy of the particle in the first excited state is E2 = 4E0.

Case III → n=3

In the second excited state,

2 3
ψ3= sin x
a a

ψ3 = 0, for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.

ψ3 is maximum for x = a/6, a/2, 5a/6.

These are represented in the graphs.

a a 5a
| ψ3 |2 = 0 for x = 0, a/3, 2a/3 and a.  3  maximum for x  ,x  ,x 
2

6 2 6

The energy of the particle in the second excited state is E3=9 E0.

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Module II: Electrical Properties of Metals and Semiconductors

Failure of classical free electron theory:

Electrical and thermal conductivities can be explained from classical free
electron theory. It fails to account the facts such as specific heat, temperature
dependence of conductivity and dependence of electrical conductivity on
electron concentration.
1) Specific heat: The molar specific heat of a gas at constant volume is
3
Cv= R
2
As per the classical free electron theory, free electrons in a metal are
expected to behave just as gas molecules. Thus the above equation holds good
equally well for the free electrons also.
But experimentally it was found that, the contribution to the
specific heat of ametal by its conduction electrons was CV=10-4RT which is for
lower than the expected value. Also according to the theory the specific heat is
independent of temperature whereas experimentally specific heat is proportional
to temperature.
2) Temperature dependence of electrical conductivity:
Experimentally, electrical conductivity σ is inversely proportional to the
temperature T.
i.e σexp α 1/T → (1)
According to the assumptions of classical free electron theory
3 1
KT  mv 2th
2 2
3KT
v 2th 
m
i.e., v2th  T

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
The mean collision time ‘τ’ is inversely proportional to the thermal
velocity.
1 1
i.e.   or 𝜏𝛼
v th √𝑇

σ = ne 
2
But
m
σατ
1
or σα →(2)
T
From equations (1) & (2) it is clear that the experimental value is not
agreeing with the theory.
3) Dependence of electrical conductivity on electron concentration:
According to the theoryσ = ne  ; where n is the electron concentration,
2

m
therefore σ α n
Consider zinc and cadmium which are divalent metals. Their electrical
conductivities are 1.09×107/Ωm and 0.15x107/Ωm. These are much lesser than
that of monovalent metals copper and silver. The values of which are
5.88x107/Ωm and 6.3x107/Ωm respectively. The electron concentrations for
zinc and cadmium are 13.1×1028/m3 and 9.28×1028/m3 which are much higher
than that for copper and silver, the values of which are 8.45×1028/m3 and
5.85×1028/m3 respectively. Hence the classical free electron theory fails to
explain the dependence of σ on electron concentration.

Quantum free electron theory

Assumptions of quantum free electron theory.

The assumptions of quantum free electron theory are:
a. The energy values of the conduction electrons are quantized. The allowed
energy values are realized in terms of a set of energy values.
b. The distribution of electrons in the various allowed energy levels occur as per
Pauli’s exclusion principle.
The following assumptions of classical free electron theory holds good in
quantum free electron theory also.
c. The electrons travel with a constant potential inside the metal but confined
within its boundaries.
d. The attraction between the electrons and the lattice ions and the repulsion
between the electrons themselves are ignored.

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
Density of states: There are large numbers of allowed energy levels for
electrons in solid materials. A group of energy levels close to each other is

called as energy band. Each energy band is spread over a few electron-volt
energy ranges. In 1mm3 volume of the material, there will be a more than a
thousand billion permitted energy levels in an energy range of few electron-
volts. Because of this, the energy values appear to be virtually continuous over
a band spread. To represent it technically it is stated as density of energy levels.
The dependence of density of energy levels on the energy is denoted by g(E).
The graph shows variation of g(E) versus [Link] is called density of states
function. It is the number of allowed energy levels per unit energy interval in
the band associated with material of unit volume. In an energy band as E
changes g(E) also changes.
Consider an energy band spread in an energy interval between E 1 and E2.
Below E1 and above E2 there are energy gaps. g(E) represents the density of
states at E. As dE is small, it is assumed that g(E) is constant between E and
E+dE. The density of states in range E and (E+dE) is denoted by g(E)dE.
8√2
i.e. 𝑔(𝐸)𝑑𝐸 = 𝜋𝑚3/2 𝐸1/2 𝑑𝐸
ℎ3

It is clear g(E) is proportional to √𝐸 in the interval dE

Fermi energy and Fermi factor:

Discuss the variation of Fermi factor with temperature and energy.

Fermi energy: In a metal having N atoms, there are N allowed energy

levels in each band. In the energy band the energy levels are separated by
energy differences. It is characteristic of the material. According to Pauli’s
exclusion principle, each energy level can accommodate a maximum of two
electrons, one with spin up and the other with spin down. The filling up of
energy levels occurs from the lowest level. The next pair of electrons occupies
the next energy level and so on till all the electrons in the metal are

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
accommodated. Still number of allowed energy levels, are left vacant. This is
the picture when there is no external energy supply for the electrons. The energy
of the highest occupied level at absolute zero temperature (0K) is called the
Fermi energy and the energy level is called Fermi level. It is denoted by 'Ef'

Fermi factor: The electrons in the energy levels for below Fermi level
cannot absorb the energy above absolute zero temperature. At ordinary
temperature because there are no vacant energy levels above Fermi level into
which electrons could get into after absorbing the thermal energy. Though the
excitations are random, the distributions of electrons in various energy levels
will be systematically governed by a statistical function at the steady state.

The probability f(E) that a given energy state with energy E is occupied at
a steady temperature T is given by

1
f (E)  ( E  EF )

e kT
1
f(E) is called the fermi factor.

Fermi factor is the probability of occupation of a given energy state for a

material in thermal equilibrium.
The dependence of Fermi factor on temperature and energy is as shown in
the figure.

Following are the different cases.

i) Probability of occupation for E<Ef at T=0K:

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 Quantum Physics and Electronic Sensors BPHEC102/202
When T=0K and E<Ef
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =1
𝑒 −∞+1 0+1

f(E)=1 for E<Ef.

f(E)=1 means the energy level is certainly occupied and E<Ef applies to all
energy levels below Ef. Therefore at T=0K all the energy levels below the Fermi
level are occupied.

ii) Probability of occupation for E>Ef at T=0K:

When T=0K and E>Ef
1 1
𝑓(𝐸) = = =0
𝑒 ∞ +1 ∞

... f(E)=0 for E>Ef

... At T=0K, all the energy levels above fermi levels are unoccupied. Hence at
T=0K the variation of f(E) for different energy values, becomes a step function
as shown in the above figure.

iii) The probability of occupation at ordinary temperature: (T>0K)

At ordinary temperatures though the value of probability remains 1, for E<E f it
starts reducing from 1 for values of E close to but lesser than Ef as in the figure.
The values of f(E)becomes ½ at E=Ef
This is because for E=Ef
𝑒 (𝐸−𝐸𝑓)⁄𝑘𝑇 = 𝑒 0 = 1
1 1 1
.. . 𝑓(𝐸) = (𝐸−𝐸𝑓 )⁄𝑘𝑇 = =
𝑒 +1 1+1 2
Further for E>Ef the probability value falls off to zero rapidly. Hence, the fermi
energy is the most probable or the average energy of the electrons across which
the energy transitions occur at temperature above zero degree absolute.

Success of Quantum free electron theory (successful in overcoming the

failures of classical free electron theory)
Quantum free electron theory has successfully explained following
observed experimental facts where as the classical free electron theory failed.

Specific heat:According to classical free electron theory all the conduction

electron are capable of observing the heat energy as per Maxwell Boltzmann
statistics which results in large value of specific heat.

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According to quantum free electron theory, it is only those electron that are
occupying energy levels close to 𝐸𝐹 , which are capable of observing the heat
energy to get excited to higher energy levels .
Hence only a small percentage of the conduction electrons are capable of
receiving the thermal energy input, thus the specific heat value becomes very
small for the metal.
According to quantum free electron theory, it can be shown

 2k 
CV    RT
 EF 
Considering 𝐸𝐹 = 5 eV
2𝑘
(𝐸 )≈10−4
𝐹

CV 104 RT which is close to experimental value.

b) Temperature depends on electrical conductivity.

1 1
Electrical conductivity  is proportional to but not which is as follows:
𝑇 √𝑇

ne 2 
Electrical conductivity  
m*
Where m* is called effective mass of an electron.

According to quantum free electron theory  is  
vF
ne 2 
  *
m vF
According to quantum free electron theory EF and vF are independent of
temperature. The dependence of λ & T is as follows:
Conduction electrons are scattered by the vibrating ions of the lattice. The
vibration occurs such that the displacement of ions takes place equally in all
directions. If ‘r’ is the amplitude of vibrations, then the ions can be considered
to present effectively a circular cross section of area πr2 that blocks the path of
the electron irrespective of direction of approach. Since the vibrations cover
larger area of cross section should scatter more number of electrons, it results in
the reduction of mean free path of the electron.
1

 r2

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Considering the facts
The energy of vibrating body is proportional to the square of amplitude.
The energy of ions is due to the thermal energy.
The thermal energy is proportional to the temperature ‘T’.
We can write r2 α T
 λ α 1/T
 σ α 1/T
Thus σ α 1/T is correctly explained by quantum free electron theory.

Electrical conductivity and electron concentration:

Aluminium and gallium which have three free electrons per atom have lower
electrical conductivity than that of copper and silver, which have only one free
electron per atom.

As per quantum free electron the electrical conductivity is

ne 2 
 *
m vF
The value of n for aluminium is 2.13 times higher than that of copper. But the
value of λ/vf for copper is about 3.73 times higher than that of aluminium. Thus
the conductivity of copper exceeds that of aluminium.

Physics of semiconductor
A semiconductor is a material whose conductivity lies between that of a
conductor and insulator. The semiconductor in its pure form (No impurities or
dopants) is called an intrinsic semiconductor. For example: Ge (E g=0.7eV) and
Si (Eg=1.1eV).

In a Semiconductor, atoms are held together by covalent bonds. At absolute

zero, a semiconductor behaves as an insulator (ie., the valence band is
completely filled and conduction band is empty). As temperature increases, the
electrons jump into conduction band from valence band and allow the current to
pass through it. Whenever an electron elevates to the conduction band, it leaves
a vacancy in the valence band. This vacancy is known as hole.

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At any given temperature, the number of holes created in the valence band must
be equal to number of electrons jumped into conduction band.

The electrons per unit volume which are present in conduction band (ne) is
given by,

Concentration of electrons and holes in and intrinsic semiconductors

The number of charge carriers present per unit volume of the material is called
carrier concentration. The number of electrons in the conduction band/unit
volume of the material is called electron concentration. For an intrinsic
semiconductor, it is given by

𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑔
4√2
𝑁𝑒 = (𝜋𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑘𝑇)3/2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ------(1)
ℎ3
The number of holes in the valence band/unit volume of the material is called
hole concentration. It can be shown that hole concentration in an intrinsic
semiconductor is

−𝐸𝐹
4√2
𝑁ℎ = (𝜋𝑚ℎ∗ 𝑘𝑇)3/2 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 ------(2)
ℎ3

Where, 𝑚𝑒∗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑚ℎ∗ are effective masses of electron and hole respectively, K is
Boltzmann constant, T is absolute temperature, h is Planck’s constant, E g is
energy gap and EF is Fermi energy.

Relation between Fermi Energy and Energy gap in an intrinsic

semiconductor:

For an intrinsic semiconductor, 𝑁𝑒 = 𝑁ℎ

Therefore, equating equations (1) and (2)

4√2 ∗ 3/2
𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑔 4√2 ∗
−𝐸𝐹
3/2 𝑘𝑇
(𝜋𝑚𝑒 𝑘𝑇) 𝑒 𝑘𝑇 = (𝜋𝑚ℎ 𝑘𝑇) 𝑒
ℎ3 ℎ3

(𝐸𝐹 −𝐸𝑔 )⁄ −𝐸𝐹⁄

𝑒 𝑘𝑇 =𝑒 𝑘𝑇

∵ 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠, 𝑚𝑒∗ = 𝑚ℎ∗

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(𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑔 ) −𝐸𝐹
=
𝑘𝑇 𝑘𝑇

𝐸𝐹 − 𝐸𝑔 = −𝐸𝐹

2𝐸𝐹 = 𝐸𝑔

𝐸𝑔
𝑜𝑟, 𝐸𝐹 = − − − (3)
2

Expression for electrical conductivity of a semiconductor

Let ne be the electron concentration/unit volume and e be the charge of an

electron, then the charge flow per second = eneAv.
Since charge flow/second is the current I.
Therefore expression for the current is given by.
I = eneAv-------------------------1

Current density, J = I/A = enev.--------------------------------------2

If E is the applied electric field, then the mobility of an electron is given by,
µe = v/E

Therefore, J = ene µeE---------------------------------3

General form of Ohm’s law is given by, J = E----------------------------------4

Compare equations 3 and 4,
e = ene µe
Where, e is the conductivity due to the only electrons in the semiconductor
Similarly, conductivity due to only holes can be written as,
h = enh µh
Total conductivity of a semiconducting material is the sum of the conductivity
due to both the electrons and holes and is given by.
 = e + h
 = ene µe + enh µh
 = e(ne µe + nh µh)
For an intrinsic semiconductor, ne = nh = ni
Therefore,  = ni e(µe + µh)
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Hall Effect:
Statement: when a material in which a current flow is there is subjected to
magnetic field acting at right angles to the direction of current flow, an electric
field is induced across the material in a direction perpendicular to both the
direction of the magnetic field, and the direction of the current flow. This
phenomenon is called Hall Effect.

Theory: Let us consider a rectangular slab of a

Semiconducting material in which a current ‘I’ is
flowing in the positive x-direction. Let a
magnetic field ‘B’ be applied along the z-
direction. Under the influence of the magnetic
field, the electrons experience the Lorentz force
FL given by,
𝐹𝐿 = 𝑞(𝒗 × 𝑩) = 𝑞𝑣𝐵
For electrons, 𝑞 = −𝑒
∴ 𝐹𝐿 = −𝑒𝑣𝐵 − − − (1)
Where, e is the magnitude of the charge on the electrons, 𝑣 is the drift velocity
of charges.
Applying the Flemings left hand rule, we see that the force is exerted on the
electrons in the negative y-direction. The electrons are therefore deflected
downwards. As a result, the density of the electrons increases in the lower end
of the material, due to which its bottom edge becomes negatively charged. On
the other hand, the loss of electrons from the upper end causes the top edge of
the material to become positively charged.
Hence a potential VH, called the Hall voltage appears between the upper and
lower surfaces of the semiconductor material which establishes an electric field
EH, called the Hall field across the conductor in the negative y-direction. The
field EH, exerts an upward force FH on the electrons given by,
𝐹𝐻 = −𝑒 𝐸𝐻 − − − (2)
Under equilibrium conditions, force on charge carriers due to magnetic field
will be balanced by the force on them due to EH.
𝑖𝑒. , 𝐹𝐿 = 𝐹𝐻

From (1) and (2),

−𝑒𝑣𝐵 = −𝑒 𝐸𝐻

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𝑜𝑟 𝐸𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣 − − − (3)
If ‘d’ is the distance between the upper and lower surfaces of the slab, then,
𝑉𝐻
𝐸𝐻 =
𝑑

𝑉𝐻 = 𝐸𝐻 𝑑 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑 − − − (4)
Let ‘w’ be the thickness of the material in the z-direction.
Therefore, its area normal to the direction of ‘I’ is, A = wd
𝐼 𝐼
∴ The current density, 𝐽= = − − − (5)
𝐴 𝑤𝑑

But, we know that, 𝐽 = 𝑛𝑒𝑣 − − − (6)

Where n is the charge carrier concentration
𝐼
From (5) and (6), 𝑛𝑒𝑣 =
𝑤𝑑
𝐼
𝑜𝑟 𝑣 = − − − (7)
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑑

Substituting (7) in (4), we get

𝐼
𝑉𝐻 = 𝐵𝑣𝑑 = 𝐵 × ×𝑑
𝑛𝑒𝑤𝑑

𝐵𝐼
𝑉𝐻 = − − − (8)
𝑛𝑒𝑤
𝐵𝐼
𝑜𝑟 𝑛𝑒 = 𝜌 = − − − (9)
𝑉𝐻 𝑤
Where, 𝜌 is the charge density.
Thus, by measuring VH, I and w and by knowing B, the charge density 𝜌 can be
determined.
The polarity of the Hall voltage developed at the top and bottom edges of the
specimen can be identified by using probes.
If the Hall voltage is positive → n-type Semiconductor
If the Hall voltage is negative → p-type Semiconductor

Hall Coefficient RH:

From equation (3), 𝐸𝐻 𝛼 𝐵
And also, 𝐸𝐻 𝛼 𝐽
Therefore, 𝐸𝐻 𝛼 𝐽𝐵
𝐸𝐻 = 𝑅𝐻 𝐽 𝐵
Where, RH is the Hall Coefficient

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𝐸𝐻 𝐵𝑣
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = =
𝐽𝐵 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝐵

1 1
∴ 𝑅𝐻 = =
𝑛𝑒 𝜌
Applications:
1. Hall effect can be used to find the polarity of the charge carriers.
2. Used to determine whether a semiconductor is n-type or p-type.
3. To find the carrier concentration(n)
4. To find the carrier mobility (μ).

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