PHASE 2021-II Chemistry

CPU 2023-II Chemistry

COURSE DATA
COURSE: CHEMISTRY
CANTIDAD DE SEMANAS: 10:
FECHA DE INICIO DEL CICLO: 8 abril del 2023
END DATE OF THE CYCLE: June 18, 2023

DATOS DEL DOCENTE:

NOMBRES Y APELLIDOS: Alberth Joshep Salgado Pérez
PHONE; 952-372854
EMAIL: ajotasalgado2019@[Link]
OFFICE HOURS/TUTORING: Wednesday from 6 pm to 7 pm
TEACHER PROFILE:
Graduated in Chemical Engineering, Bachelor's in Civil Engineering, completed Master's studies in
university teaching and educational management.
TEACHING EXPERIENCE:
Teacher with extensive experience and background in private educational institutions in the area
como I.E.P. Cima, Colegio Cristo Rey, I.E.P. Santa Ana, I.E.P: Verdad y Vida, I. E.P. San Jose
from Nazareth; likewise in pre-university academies of the locality.

DESCRIPCIÓN DEL CURSO

4.1. GENERIC SKILLS OF THE UPT
a. Research
b. Pensamiento critico
c. Teamwork
d. Communication
e. Entrepreneurship and innovation
4.2. COURSE COMPETENCIES
Understand and use chemical terminology, nomenclature, conventions, and units.
To know the chemical elements and their compounds, their methods of obtaining, structure,
properties and reactivity, as well as the main techniques for their analysis.
Be able to communicate, orally and in writing, the knowledge, procedures and
results of Chemistry
Identify and correctly name organic compounds by identifying their group

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functional, applying the appropriate rules and standards.

4.3. CAPACITIES BY ACADEMIC UNITS

Capabilities of the first unit

Understanding the importance of chemistry as a central science that serves as a foundation for others
sciences that allow us to understand the world around us.

Interpret the scientific contributions that allowed us to understand the composition of the atom.

Interpret and understand the chronological development for the conception of the table
periodic.

Understand and interpret the fundamental principle of bond formation

chemical, besides differentiating the types of bonds formed.

Formulate, write and differentiate inorganic compounds from their formula and rules.
of nomenclature.
Capabilities of the second unit

Use basic concepts to describe and classify types of chemical reactions.

Balance chemical equations applying a suitable method as the case may be.

Identify mass or volume relationships by applying stoichiometric laws.

Reason by applying the appropriate strategy to calculate the concentration of a solution.

chemistry.

Identify and apply the rules of organic nomenclature to name compounds

organics.

Apply concepts of organic chemistry to determine the importance of the

organic compounds in everyday life.

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CONTENT

CHEMISTRY
THE MATERIAL.................................................................................................................................10
SELF-ASSESSMENT 01..............................................................16
ATOMIC STRUCTURE.................................................................................................18
AUTOEVALUACIÓN 02................................................................................................................31
SELF-EVALUATION 03................................................................................................................37
PERIODIC TABLE
SELF-EVALUATION 04...................................................................................................................49
CHEMICAL BOND.......................................................................................................................51
AUTOEVALUACIÓN 05................................................................................................................57
INORGANIC NOMENCLATURE.............................................................................................59
SELF-EVALUATION 06................................................................................................................66
CHEMICAL REACTIONS...........................................................................................................68
SELF-ASSESSMENT 07................................................................................................................71
STOICHIOMETRY......................................................................................................................73
AUTOEVALUATION 08................................................................................................................78
SOLUTIONS.................................................................................................................................80
SELF-EVALUATION 09................................................................................................................84
ACIDS AND BASES
SELF-EVALUATION 10................................................................................................................88
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY..................................................................................................................89
AUTOEVALUACIÓN 11................................................................................................................99
OXYGENATED FUNCTIONS......................................................................................................100
SELF-EVALUATION 12.............................................................................................................112
BIBLIOGRAPHY...............................................................113

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A. Introduction to Chemistry

CHEMISTRY
Desde la Antigüedad el hombre ha intentado entender por qué y cómo se producen los
natural phenomena that he observes around him. This longing for understanding has given rise to
various currents of thought, such as religion, art, or science.
Chemistry is a natural science through which man studies the composition and the
behavior of matter, as well as its relationship with energy. But, to understand the
Natural phenomena have not only served humanity to satisfy its curiosity. Also
has helped to improve people's quality of life. Thus, materials such as plastics,
paints or detergents; medications such as penicillin, antacids or insulin, and machines
like refrigerators or internal combustion engines, have been made possible thanks to the
growing knowledge we have of the world around us, and especially thanks to
to the advances achieved in chemistry.
The first manifestations of human beings related to chemistry are associated with activities
practices, such as cooking and metallurgy. By the year 1200 BC, Egyptians and
Babylonians had achieved great perfection in the application of these techniques, being masters
in the handling of glass and metals like gold, silver, and iron. Nonetheless, these peoples
they paid little attention to the development of a theoretical framework to support these activities
daily
In the 6th century B.C., the first theories about the composition of matter emerged in Greece.
thanks to philosophers like Thales of Miletus (625-545 BC) and Anaximander (611-547 BC).
His ideas were later taken up by Aristotle (383-322 BC) in the so-called
the theory of the four elements, according to which earth, water, air, and fire, when combined
they formed the matter and defined the fundamental qualities of bodies. Years later,
In the 5th century BC, Democritus and Leucippus proposed that matter was composed of
some indivisible minimal particles, which they called atoms.

Alchemy (500-1600 AD)

As a result of the fusion between the technical domain of the Egyptians and theoretical elaboration
philosophical of the Greeks, alchemy emerged. The alchemists, unlike their predecessors, did not
they not only sought to understand the natural world, but also sought perfection within themselves
same. This ideal was materialized in gold. For this reason, the alchemists directed great

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part of their efforts to the manipulation of metals and countless substances with

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ability to interact with them and especially in the search for the philosopher's stone,
magical compound that could transform metals into gold, as well as provide eternal life
youth. Along this path, they developed and perfected various instruments and methods, the
which have come to us through terms like alcohol, bath of Mary, alembic,
distillation and sublimation.
Emergence of modern chemistry
For the men of science of the 18th century, the theory of the four elements was no longer
enough to explain the composition and behavior of matter. For example, the
advancements in the knowledge of gases raised doubts that air was an element instead
from a set of different substances.
It was a time when nothing was taken for granted, everything had to be measured, weighed, and verified.
The most prominent representative of that trend was the French chemist Antoine Lavoisier.
(1743-1794), who laid the foundations of modern chemistry by establishing that matter does not
neither created nor destroyed, but transformed, and to show that air, water, and fire were not
elements.

B. Branches of chemistry
Chemistry is considered one of the greatest and broadest sciences of nature.
Better study chemistry presents the following branches:
a) General Chemistry. - Studies the entire field of chemistry, but in a simplified form. It is
studied especially by those who are starting to learn chemistry.
b) Descriptive Chemistry. - It is responsible for studying each of the chemical elements and thei
various combinations. It is subdivided into:
Inorganic studies all chemical elements except for the carbon atom.
Organic chemistry particularly studies the carbon atom and its combinations, excluding
2-
to the CO, CO2, H2CO3and sales CO3whether they are natural (from the animal kingdom and
vegetal) or artificial (plastics, textile fibers, etc.)
c) Analytical Chemistry. - It is responsible for presenting the principles and technical methods of

chemical analysis aims to determine the chemical composition of the

substances or the elements present in a compound. It is subdivided into:
Qualitative Analytical Chemistry studies the techniques for identifying substances.
chemicals (simple and compound) in a sample or the elements and ions that are present
present in a compound. For example, it has been determined that in common salt there are two

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elements: chlorine and sodium, in table sugar: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, in the
pure water: hydrogen and oxygen.
Quantitative Analytical Chemistry studies the techniques for quantifying substances.
pure chemicals in a sample or the weight percentage that each element represents in
a compound, to then establish its chemical formula. For example, in water there is
88.89% by weight of oxygen and 11.11% of hydrogen, then the formula for water will be
H2O.
d) Applied Chemistry. - Due to its relationship with other sciences, it is subdivided into:

Biochemistry, also known as biological chemistry, studies the reactions that occur.
in a living organism, also its composition and materials that make it up.
Metabolism refers to the total of reactions that occur within an organism.
Physical chemistry studies all the processes in which principles and laws are related.
physical and chemical, for example, in atomic and molecular structure, thermodynamics,
properties of gases, liquids and solids, etc.
Industrial Chemistry studies the application of chemical processes and the inputs for the
production of synthetic chemical products on a large scale, for example, plastics.
synthetic rubber, fuels, textile fibers, fertilizers, insecticides, soaps,
detergents, sulfuric acid, caustic soda, chlorine, etc.
Petrochemistry studies the application of chemical processes and principles to obtain the
industrial products from petroleum, coal, and natural gas derivatives.
Geochemistry studies the chemical composition of the Earth. Its main objectives are
geochemistry
a. The determination of the absolute and relative abundance of chemical elements of the
earth.
b. Study of the distribution and migration of chemical elements in the various
parts of the earth (atmosphere, hydrosphere, and lithosphere) and in their minerals and rocks,
trying to determine the laws or principles that govern such distribution and migration.
Astrochemistry studies the chemical composition of the stars. For example, it has
determined that the atmosphere of the planet Mars contains nitrogen, carbon dioxide,
helium and hydrogen.
Farmoquímica studies the properties of chemical substances and their harmful action or
beneficial to living beings. For example, the action of penicillin, drugs and
antibiotics in humans.

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C. Importance of chemistry
Nowadays, chemistry has such a presence in our lives and in our well-being that many
Sometimes we don't stop to think about its current influence and the role it has played in
what we are today.

Examples of this are surgery, from which we could not

thinking without anesthetics, or in planes that fly
thanks to private gasolines, the colors of our
clothing, in constructions without cement, in the
tunneling without the use of explosives, and a
long etc. Surely, if it suddenly disappeared the
chemistry of our lives, we wouldn't be very similar
to what we are now, we, our houses, the
society that surrounds us in general. Nothing would be what
is.
Without a doubt, the advancement of our civilization, to a great extent

partly, we owe it to this science. In 200 years, our civilization has developed more
quickly than in the four thousand years before. We find ourselves just at the beginning of all this
enormous progress has been made thanks to chemistry, but still, the greatest secrets
the depths of nature are not known, and undoubtedly, chemistry will be part of them and its
explanation to the world.
Chemists have come to understand the structure and functioning of atoms,
learning to use them in various ways, but it still does not answer what makes it different
the living matter from which it is not, since for example it is not fully understood why
the hormones in our body produce the incredible effects that we know, it does not reach
to delve too deeply into certain mechanisms, which will undoubtedly come to fruition sooner or later
answer, both to these and many other unanswered questions, thanks to the tireless
work of the different branches of chemistry. We thus know that we are witnessing the beginning, and not to the

culmination of chemical science, which still has much to teach us.

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When we hear about chemistry, we tend to think of mixtures, laboratories, and

experiments, but we already know that chemistry is much more than that. Living beings
we are made of chemical elements, we feed on substances that give us energy,
thanks to the realization of chemical processes. Our home, our environment, is surrounded by
Chemistry, when cooking, can be said that we are in a laboratory, where we transform and
we make food react, in our garden we use insecticides, we use devices with
energy, we use soaps, perfumes, when we get sick, we use medicines, the
vaccines, vitamins... all of this absolutely depends on the
chemistry.
Oil is another natural product that
we use in daily life in so many things,
from construction to jewelry,
passing through the industry. The plastics and
synthetic fabrics, energy sources
like electricity, which is obtained from the
transformation of various energies....

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THE MATTER
A. Definition
It is everything that occupies a place in the
space, presents mass and volume, is
perceptible by our senses, it
constantly transforming,
in addition to being condensed energy.
example: chalk, perfumes, air, paper,
pencil, etc.

B. Division of matter
Matter can be divided into increasingly smaller portions, thus obtaining:
Body. - It is the limited portion of matter that has mass, a definite shape, and occupies a place.
in space. For example: a brick, a sheet of paper, a drop of water, etc.
Particle. - It is the smallest portion of a body obtained through procedures.
mechanical. For example: when we grind a piece of brick until it becomes fine powder,
each grain of this dust constitutes a particle.
Molecule. - It is the smallest amount of matter obtained through physical processes. It
is characterized by being invisible. For example: the water molecule.
Atom. - It is the limit of the portion of matter. The atom is obtained through procedures
chemicals. For example, if the water molecule is decomposed, an oxygen atom is obtained and
two atoms of hydrogen. The atom, through its disintegration by nuclear means, gives rise to
the elementary particles: protons, electrons, neutrons and finally the quarks.

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C. Properties of matter
The properties of matter can be classified into general properties and properties
specific, so we have:
a) General or extensive properties:
These properties are present in all bodies without exception and regardless of the state.
physical, we have:
Mass is defined as the amount of matter.
Volume is the space occupied by a body.
Impenetrability, one body cannot occupy the place of another without first displacing it.
Divisibility, every body can be divided into smaller and smaller fractions.
called particles.
Porosity, every body has intermolecular spaces.
Weight, every body is attracted by gravity.
Indestructibility, inertia, expansion, heat gained, etc.
Thus, for example, water and gold have the same general properties: mass and volume.
they can be divided, they have weight, the space they occupy cannot be occupied by another
substance at the same time, etc.

b) Specific or intensive properties:

They are the particular properties that characterize each substance, allowing for their differentiation and
identification. Among the properties we can mention: density, malleability, ductility,
flexibilidad, elasticidad, punto de fusión, conductividad, viscosidad, plasticidad, fragilidad,
boiling point, reactivity, acidity, basicity, etc. At the same time, these properties are
they can be classified as chemical and physical, depending on whether their internal composition is altered or not:

b.1. physical properties; they are the properties related to the appearance of an object or
Substance, therefore, impresses our senses without altering the internal composition.
Examples: density, physical state, organoleptic properties, boiling point,
melting point, hardness, solubility, etc.

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b.2. chemical properties; these are properties that manifest when altering their structure.
internal or molecular, when they interact with another substance, among them we have: oxidation,
combustion, reactivity, flammability, etc.

States of matter.
The material body appears in the universe in four states: solid, liquid, gaseous, and
plasmatic. The first 3 are more common at room temperature and therefore of greater
importance. The following table shows us a brief comparison of the three physical states
of matter based on the substance water.

[Link] changes:
As we know, the changes of state are
examples of physical changes of matter,
these changes of state depend on the degree
of the movement of the particles of a
substance, therefore, is affected by
external factors such as pressure and
the temperature.

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F. Classification of matter
There are various types of material bodies or substances that exist in nature under
various shapes and sizes. We must respect certain criteria to correctly identify the
different material bodies. The following classification diagram is shown
of matter.

MIXTURE

[Link]
It is the meeting of two or more chemical substances in any proportion, where the properties
the components are preserved, meaning there is no chemical reaction, therefore, they can be
separate by physical or chemical means.

What is a homogeneous mixture?

It is one that its components cannot be differentiated at first glance, therefore, its
composition is homogeneous having the same composition and properties, presents a single
phase among its components.

What is a heterogeneous mixture?

It is that mixture where the components can be identified by simple inspection.
they form, in addition, the separation between substances is identified.

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COLLOIDS AND SUSPENSIONS

COLLOIDS are heterogeneous mixtures where their
Particles range from 1 to 1000 nanometers in diameter, they are not visible.

At first glance, they do not settle at rest and cannot be

separate by filtration, colloids are made up of a
dispersed phase and a dispersing phase, unlike the
solutions show the Tyndall effect, that is, when passing a
light beam disperses it.
Existen diferentes coloides, éstos se clasifican de acuerdo con la fase dispersa y la fase dispersa:
Aerosol: nubes; espuma: crema
Solid foam: pumice,
["beaten","Smoke","spray"]
Shaving foam, cream
Emulsion: mayonnaise, milk.
Solid emulsion: butter
jams, paint, ink.
Gel: Gelatin, cheese.
SUSPENSIONS are heterogeneous mixtures, formed by one substance dispersed in another.
and when letting a mixture rest, the particles settle at the bottom. The phases that constitute
a suspension is noticeable at first glance by
example when dispersing sea sand with water, it
notice that when leaving the mixture to rest it forms two

phases, and by passing it through a filter paper it can be

to separate one of its components. The size of
particle for a suspension is >1000 nm.
Ejemplos: Jugo de papaya, Agua con arena, Leche de magnesia.

COMPONENTS OF A SYSTEM
The number of different substances that make up a system is called components.
it must therefore consider the number of substances that will make up this system,
In addition to the phases that have formed, we have:
Number of Nombre del sistema Number of phases Name of
Substances system
1 Unitary 1 Single-phase
2 Binary 2 Bifasic
3 Ternary 3 Three-phase
4, etc Quaternary, etc. 4, etc. Four-phase, etc.

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PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PHENOMENA

Examples of physical phenomena: When a steel nail bends, it remains steel;
then we can straighten it by reclaiming its original shape; if we heat a ball of iron it
it expands, if we cool it to its initial temperature, it regains its original volume. Therefore, the
Physical phenomena are changes where substances do not undergo molecular alteration.
easily reversible by another physical phenomenon.
Examples of chemical changes: if we leave iron exposed to the air, a layer forms on the surface.
reddish-brown powder that would be iron oxide, which indicates that the iron has changed
of composition; if we dissolve Andrews' Salts in water, carbon dioxide (gas) is released, and in
At the bottom of the glass, a white precipitate with a caustic taste appears, then a reaction has occurred.

chemical phenomenon, because new substances appear. So we can affirm that a

Chemical change is a transformation of substances where one or more disappear and are formed.
other new ones.

Physical phenomenon Chemical phenomenon

ALLOTROPIC PHENOMENA
The allotropic phenomenon occurs when chemical elements bond their atoms.
different forms, this causes these compounds to have different chemical properties.
Example of diamond and graphite.

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SELF-EVALUATION 01
1. Classify the following properties as intensive, extensive, physical, chemical.
. Density .
Table
. Ductility .
Volume
. Flexibility .
Basicity
. Elasticity .
Porosity
. Acidity .
Weight
. Impenetrability .
Viscosity

Tenacity Divisibility

2. Identify whether the following statements correspond to homogeneous or heterogeneous mixtures.

( ) Acetone ( ) Fog

( ) Blood ( ) Muriatic acid

24-karat gold ( ) Dry ice

( ) Steel ( ) Lemonade

( ) Soft drink ( ) Fruit salad

( ) sawdust ( ) Yogurt

( ) Gasoline ( ) Syrup

( ) Hydrogen peroxide ( ) Amalgam

( ) Aqua regia ( ) Brine

3. Determine which of the following changes are physical, chemical, or allotropically, and explain why:

a) Crush a rock

b) Clean the silver objects

c) Ozone and oxygen

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4. How many correspond to substances Boiling of water.

simple or compound respectively? Photosynthesis of plants.
Propane gas (C3H8) a) 1 b) 3 c) 4 d) 0 e) 2
Aluminum (Al) 8. The incorrect statements are:
Ozone (O3) I. Compounds can be separated into their
Nitrogen (N)2) constituents through physical processes.
Quicklime (CaO) II. Sodium chloride NaCl is a
Nitric acid (HNO)3) simple substance.
5. Complete the following outline, regarding III. Seawater and oil are
the changes of states of aggregation and compounds.
determine the correct alternative: a) Only I b) I and II c) Solo II
(3) d) I, II and III e) II and III
(5) (8) 9. Mark the incorrect one:
(2) LIQUID (1)
LIQUEFACTION (7) a) Muriatic acid: aqueous solution of
hydrochloric acid.
(4)
Gas B) (4) Deposition b) Brass: an alloy of copper with zinc.
C) (5) Evaporación D) (7)Condensación c) Hard water: water with an excess of salts
E) (2) Solid calcium and magnesium.
6. Indicate the incorrect statement regarding d) Gunpowder: saltpeter, charcoal, and sulfur.

to the subject. e) Bleach for washing: aqueous solution of

a) The simple substance is made up of NaOH.
atoms of the same element. 10. Mark true (T) or false (F):
b) The compound substance is formed Every chemical compound is a substance.
by similar atoms. All substances are chemical compounds.
c) A simple substance cannot be The air that fills a classroom is
decompose into another substance a homogeneous system.
simple. Steel, bronze, and tin are mixtures.
d) A compound substance can VFVV b) FFVF c) VVVF
decompose into simple substance. d) VFVF e) VFFF
e) Compound substances are composed 11. Which of the following material bodies
with atoms of different elements. it cannot ordinarily be separated in its
7. Indicate how many chemical phenomena components?
they exist in: air b) Sugar c) Water
Corrosion of metals. d) Gold e) Hydrogen peroxide
Liquefaction of propane.
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ATOMIC STRUCTURE
A. ATOMIC THEORY
a) The atom through time
The Greeks were the ones who first
they were concerned about inquiring about the constitution

intimate with the matter, although from a

purely theoretical perspective, for they did not believe

on the importance of experimentation.

Around the year 450 BC, Leucippus and his
disciple, Democritus (figure 1), proposed
that matter was made up of small particles which they called atoms, a word
what does indivisible mean.
The postulates of Greek atomism stated that:
Atoms are solid.
Between the atoms there is only vacuum.
Atoms are indivisible and eternal.
The atoms of different bodies differ from each other in their shape, size, and distribution.
spatial.
The properties of matter vary according to the type of atoms and how they are grouped.

b) Atomic theory of John Dalton

It was developed between 1803 and 1808 to establish a foundation
theory of the experimental laws of combination
chemistry, Dalton brilliantly explained the law of
conservation of mass by Lavoisier, law of proportions
defined by Proust and discovered the law of proportions
multiple, but for that he had to give it a property
important to the atom: mass. Therefore, it was created the
first scale of relative atomic masses.
It explains to us what the nature of the atom and molecules is like.

from the compounds, all their work was reflected in their postulates, thus we have:
All chemical elements are made up of discrete, indivisible particles.
even in the most violent chemical reactions, called atoms.

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Atoms of the same element are identical in all their properties, especially
in size and mass.
During chemical reactions, there is a rearrangement of atoms, without the atom being
divide or be destroyed.
The atoms of two elements can combine in more than one simple whole number ratio.
to form more than one compound.

Cathode rays and the discovery of the electron

We said that in 1897 J.J. Thomson, head of the famous Cavendish Laboratory in the
Cambridge University conducted a series of experiments that convinced physicists.
that cathode rays are negatively charged particles.
By then it was well known that the trajectories of charged particles are affected
both by magnetic fields and by electric ones. Assuming that the rays
Cathodes were negatively charged particles, Thomson could predict what would happen.
when they crossed these fields. For example, an electric field of the magnitude and
correct directions should precisely balance the deviation produced in a beam of
cathode rays by a magnetic field. Thomson was able to verify that the predictions
were correct. From here, therefore, he could conclude that cathode rays were made of
negatively charged particles.
From the experimental data, I could calculate the relationship between the charge of a particle.
and its mass. We can represent this relationship as q/m, where q is the charge and m is the mass.

mass of the particle. To decide between the two possibilities, Thomson also measured the
negative charged particles are loaded in cathode rays using methods different from the
deflection by electric and magnetic fields. Their experiments were not very precise,
but they were good enough to indicate the magnitude of the load
The negative of a cathode ray particle was the same or not very different from the magnitude.
of the positive hydrogen ion charge in electrolysis. In view of the large value of q/m for
the cathode rays particles, Thomson concluded that the mass of the particles of
cathode rays are much smaller than the mass of hydrogen ions.
In summary, Thomson had discovered that cathode rays particles have three
important properties:
The same types of particles are emitted by a wide variety of cathodes of different
materials.

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They were much smaller in mass than the hydrogen atom, the atom that has mass
smaller.
3. They had the same magnitude of charge as the charge in the hydrogen ion.

In light of these facts, Thomson could only conclude that the particles of rays
Cathodes must be a component of all matter that has not been observed so far. Given that
electric charge carrier, the cathode ray particle would be identified with a name
invented long before, electron. It has a negative charge of -1.6·10-19C. The magnitude of the
The load of electrons is represented by the symbol e, where e = -1.6·10-19C.

Thomson's discovery meant that the atom was not the maximum limit for subdivision.
of matter. Rather, the electron seemed to be part of certain atoms, perhaps it could even
to be a basic component of all atoms.

c) Thompson's Theory
Starting from the properties he discovered about
from cathode rays, Thompson proposes the
first atomic model, with the following
Characteristics: the atom is spherical in shape, with
compact mass and distributed positive charge
homogeneously; inside the sphere there are
embedded electrons with a movement
vibratory and in sufficient quantity to neutralize
the positive charge of the sphere; therefore, the atom
is neutral.
Because of the appearance presented by the atomic model, it was called 'Pudding Model of
grape
Its importance lies in that it was the first to connect electricity with the
atom. But, like any scientific model, it was refined to explain new
phenomena present in the atom.
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Ray channels and the existence of the proton

In 1886, Eugen Goldstein (1850-1930) observed that, in a cathode ray tube, with the
perforated anode generated a current of particles moving from the cathode to the
anode. These positive rays come from atoms contained in the tube that have lost
electrons. Changing the gas contained in the tube results in a change in the e/m ratio
from the positive particle. Studies conducted with different gases demonstrated that the charge
of ions is a multiple of a value, the unit of positive charge, called proton.

d) Rutherford's atomic model

Known as the planetary model, due to its resemblance to the solar system, in this, it is proposed that the

existence of a nucleus where protons and neutrons are found, and the electrons
distributed around the nucleus in orbits (like those described by planets).
Rutherford is unable to explain the number of electrons in each orbit, nor why the
electrons, when rotating, must lose energy and ultimately be absorbed by the nucleus which is

positive.

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To introduce his atomic model, Rutherford

I develop the gold foil experiment which
it consisted of bombarding a gold sheet, very
thin with a thickness of 0.0006 mm, with alpha particles.
It was then observed that the vast majority of the rays
alpha passed through the sheet without any deviation,
only a small amount of alpha rays were
deviated. Rutherford brilliantly managed to explain
the dispersion of alpha rays based on the following
conclusiones:
The atom has a central part called the nucleus,
tiny, positively charged, compact or solid, and very dense, due to the fact that almost the
the totality of the atomic mass is concentrated in it.
The electric field generated by the nucleus is very intense and causes the deviation of the
alpha rays through electric repulsion force.
The atom is almost empty, since electrons, particles of insignificant mass,
they would occupy large spaces when they revolve around the nucleus.

The diameter of the atom is 10,000 times the size of the atomic nucleus: = 10 000 .
Electrons spin at high speeds in circular and concentric orbits around the
atomic nucleus

e) Bohr's atomic model

In 1913, Bohr developed an atomic model.
abandoning the considerations of classical physics and
taking into account Max Planck's quantum theory.
Niels Bohr did not completely discard the planetary model.
from Rutherford, but included restrictions
additional, where the emission phenomenon and
energy absorption could only be done in the form
discontinuous, through the photons that are generated in the
energy jumps from one quantized state to another.
The Niels Bohr model is valid for monoelectronic species such as hydrogen, which
which allowed to explain their emission and absorption spectra.

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f) Quantum mechanical model

Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle

It was proposed in 1927 by the German physicist Werner Heisenberg with the following
It is impossible to determine the linear momentum and the position exactly.
a small particle that travels at a great speed." The uncertainty between the
momentum and position is expressed by the following equation:
ℎ
∆ ∗∆ ≥
4
Where:
∆ uncertainty or error in the measurement of position
∆ uncertainty or error in the measurement of the moment
ℎ Planck constant

Duality of Matter
It was proposed by the French physicist Louis De Broglie in 1924 in the following terms:
"the material bodies that travel at a certain speed possess two properties, one
particle property (mechanical property) and another wave property (waves of
subject)

Mathematically we have: λ= h
m∗v
m = mass of the body
h = Planck's constant
v = velocity of a body
wavelength.

the dual property holds for all types of material bodies, large or small,
but it has greater significance in submicroscopic particles, since for bodies
large is insignificant, due to its wavelength being extremely small.

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B. RADIOACTIVITY
The first evidence of this phenomenon dates back
from 1896 and we owe it to the experiences of
Henri Becquerel (1852-1908). This
scientist discovered that the minerals of
uranium were capable of covering a plate
photography in the absence of external light, by
the
which concluded that they had the property of emitting radiation spontaneously.
Later, the spouses Pierre (1859-1906) and Marie Curie (1867-1934), resumed the
observations made by Becquerel, confirming that all uranium minerals had the
ability to emit radiations.
In addition, they isolated two other elements with identical properties: polonium and radium (figure 6).
Radioactivity is defined as the property possessed by the atoms of certain elements of
emit radiation. Because radiation is subatomic particles, the elements
Radioactive elements transform into other elements, as the intrinsic constitution of their atoms changes.
These radiations can be of four different types:
Alpha rays (α): they are particles formed by two protons and two neutrons, so they possess a
positive charge, equal to twice the charge of a proton. Due to the mass and volume of the
Alpha particles are relatively high, these radiations travel at a low speed, and have
an equally low penetration power.
Beta rays (β)-They are electron beams, 7,000 times smaller than alpha particles.
and travel at a speed close to that of light, which gives them a penetrating power
half.
Beta rays (β)+They are particle beams similar to electrons, but with a positive charge.
called positrons. They have the same properties as β particles in terms of mass,
speed and penetration capacity. Since they are antagonists of electrons, when a
an electron and a positron collide, annihilate each other, becoming energy
electromagnetic.
Gamma rays (γ): these rays are electromagnetic radiations, with an energy content
much higher than that of visible light, so they have no mass and have a great capacity for
penetration

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COMPARISON OF RADIOACTIVE PARTICLES.

C. QUANTUM THEORY OF MAX PLANCK

When a body is heated, it emits radiation.
electromagnetic in a wide range of frequencies. The body
the ideal black object is one that absorbs all radiation
it reaches him without reflecting it, in such a way that it only emits the

corresponding to its temperature. At the end of the 19th century it was

It is possible to measure the radiation of a black body with a lot of

precision. The intensity of this radiation can in principle

to be calculated using the laws of electromagnetism. The
the problem of the early 20th century was that while the
theoretical spectrum and the experimental results coincided
for low frequencies (infrared),
these differed radically at high frequencies. This problem was known by the provocative
the name of 'the ultraviolet catastrophe', since the theoretical prediction diverges to infinity at that
limit. The person who managed to explain this phenomenon was Max Planck, in 1900, who had to do so
sacrifice the basic concepts of the wave conception of electromagnetic radiation.
To resolve the catastrophe it was necessary to accept that radiation is not emitted in a way
It continues, but how many, of discrete energy, which we call photons.
The energy of these photons is: E (photon) = h.ν
ν: Frequency of electromagnetic radiation (s-1)
h: Planck constant h = 6.62.10-27erg*s
h = 6.62 x 10-34J*s

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When the frequency of the radiation is low, the effect of discretization becomes negligible.
due to the tiny value of Planck's constant, and it is perfectly possible to think of
system as continuous, just like electromagnetism does. classical. However, to
high frequencies the effect becomes noticeable.
D. EL ATOM
Democritus of Abdera
He was born in Abdera in the year 460 BC. He is attributed with
numerous trips to Egypt and India, among others, having
acquired in the course of their knowledge of Theology,
Astrology, Geometry, etcetera. It is also located in Athens.
listening to the lessons of Socrates or Anaxagoras, according to
Collects Diogenes Laertius: "It seems, says Demetrius, that also
he went to Athens, and due to the disregard for his own glory, he did not take care

to be known; and although he knew Socrates, he did not know him.

He/She met. "I was

-he said- to Athens, and no one knew me.

attributes the creation of atomism, a doctrine defended by Democritus. (About the existence itself
There are those who have come to doubt Leucippus, relying on ignorance.
practically total that we have of him and in statements like those of Epicurus, who denied his
existencia).

Parts of the atom

The atom is the smallest portion of matter that can combine to form
molecules. The atom is made up of three types of fundamental particles: electrons,
protons and neutrons. In the atom we distinguish two parts: the nucleus and the shell.

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The nucleus is the central part of the atom and contains positively charged particles, the protons.
and particles that have no electric charge, that is, they are neutral, the neutrons. The mass of a
proton it approximately same a the from a neutron.
All the atoms of a chemical element have the same number of protons in the nucleus.
This number, which characterizes each element and distinguishes it from the others, is the atomic number.
and it is represented by the letter Z.

The crust is the outer part of the atom. It contains the electrons, which have charge.
negative. These, arranged in different levels, revolve around the nucleus. The mass of a
an electron is about 1835 times smaller than the mass of the proton. Atoms are electrically
neutrals, due to having an equal number of protons and electrons. Thus, the atomic number
it also matches the number of electrons

Fundamental particles
Protons:
Eugen Goldstein in 1886 conducted a series of experiments with discharge tubes, but with
perforated cathode. He observed the presence of a radiation that appeared behind the cathode, it is
to say that it was moving away from the anode and that it consisted of positively charged particles, which

corresponded to the so-called protons. The charge of the proton is equal to that of the electron, but with
positive sign. The mass is 1836 times greater than that of the latter (1.67 x 10-24g.)
In an atom, the number of protons in the nucleus determines the chemical properties of the
atom and what chemical element it is.
b) Neutrons: In 1932, James C. Chadwick published the results of his experiments on
the bombing of beryllium atoms with alpha particles, which demonstrated the presence of
a neutral particle with a mass similar to that of the proton, which was called neutron.

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c) Electrons: They are negatively charged particles that move continuously.

around the nucleus, forming an electron cloud, in regions called shells or levels
of energy that give volume to the atom.
J.J. Thomson around 1897 demonstrated that the rays emitted from the cathode, called
cathode rays, regardless of the material used as the cathode, carry a negative charge and
they propagate in a straight line towards the anode, they move quickly, they are very energetic and

they are present in all elements, and correspond to the subatomic particles called
electrons.

THE QUARKS
Quarks and leptons are the building blocks of matter, that is, they are
seen as the 'elementary particles'. In the current standard model, there are six
"flavors" of quarks. They can successfully explain all mesons and baryons (more than
200). The most familiar baryons are the proton and the neutron, each of which is
they are built from up and down quarks. It is observed that quarks only join in
combinations of two (mesons), or three (baryons). It has been recently stated,
observation of particles with five quarks (pentaquark), but it has not been confirmed by

no additional experimentation.

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Electronic Cloud
a) Energy levels
These are regions into which the electron cloud is divided; these levels were proposed by Bohr.
In their atomic model, therefore, 7 energy levels have been defined, we have:
Literal K L M N O P Q
Numeric 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
b) Sublevels
Sublevels are defined as smaller regions that have specific characteristics.
own, we have:
sublevels Valor Number of Number Shape of
Quantum orbitals maximum of orbital
electrons
s (Sharp) 0 1 2 Spherical
p (principal) 1 3 6 Bilobular
d (diffuse) 2 5 10 Tetralobular
f(fundamental) 3 7 14 complex

c) Types of orbitals

Atomic properties
a) Atomic number:
It is the number of protons in the nucleus of each atom of an element. This indicates the position
of the element in the periodic table. In a neutral atom, the number of protons is equal
to the number of electrons: Neutral Atom:

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Z = #p+ #p+ = #e = Z
Example:
For the following neutral atom:
For Carbon: Z = 6, it then has 6 protons and 6 electrons.
b) Mass number:
It is the total number of protons and neutrons present in the nucleus of an atom of an element.
A = #p+ + #no
c) SYMBOLISM
The most accepted way to symbolize the atomic number, the mass number, and the number of
The charge of an atom of an element X is as follows:

Interatomic relationships
a) Isotopes
They are defined as atoms of the same element that have different mass numbers.
it has been determined that all the
elements of the periodic table have isotopes
some of them used for medicinal purposes or
of research.
b) Isotonic

It is defined as atoms of different elements that

they have the same number of neutrons
c) Isobaric
It is defined as atoms of elements.
different that present the same number
massive.

d) Isoelectronic
It is defined as atoms of different elements that have the same number of neutrons.

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SELF-EVALUATION 02
A monovalent anion with number 7. The neutral Cu atom contains 29
mass 35 has a number of electrons that protons and 29 electrons. When this
is equal to the number of neutrons. Find the atom becomes Cu+2What has
atomic number. varied?
a) 16 b) 17 c) 18 d) 19 e) 20 a) Increases its protons to 31.
[Link] the nucleus of an atom, the neutrons b) It has 29 electrons and 27
y protons are in the ratio of 6 to 4, if their protons.
atomic number is 48. Find its number of c) The protons remain the same, but
dough. loses 2 electrons.
a) 100 b) 20 c) 80 d) 120 e) 150 d) The protons remain at 29 but gain
207
3. If an atom is isobaric with it Pb y 2 electrons.
it is also isotonic with the Ag. Indicate the
108
e) The change is not related to either
atomic number of that atom. electrons nor with neutrons.
144 b) 139 c) 126 d)130 e)146 8. For the following ionic species45Sc+3,
In two isotonic atoms, the sum of their they are correct:
nuclear charges is 90 and the difference of their It is a trivalent anion.
mass numbers is 2. Determine for the Its nucleus has 21 neutrons.
lighter isotone the number of electrons III. The neutral atom has lost 3 electrons.
of its trivalent anion. IV. It is a trivalent cation
a) 45 b) 48 c)46 V has 24 electrons.
d) 49 e)47 a) Only III b) Everyone c) I and IV
5. There are two isotopes where the sum of
d) III and IV e) II, III, and V
its mass numbers are 225 and the sum of 9. The A ions+1; B-3; C+4they are species
its neutrons is 141. Calculate the charge isoelectronic with atomic numbers
nucleus of the atom. The sum is 122. Indicate the atomic number of B.
39 b) 41 c) 38 d) 42 e) 40 a) 44 b)37 c)33 41 e)42
For two isotopes of an element, 10. The mass numbers of two hybrids is
the sum of neutrons is 38 and the 110 and the sum of its neutrons is half
The sum of their mass numbers is 72. Find out. from the number of protons of said
the atomic number of the element. atoms. Find the number of electrons.
a) 10 b) 17 c) 35 d) 25 e) 27 a) 40 b) 44 c) 50 d) 60 e) 24
In two isotones, the mass numbers
they are double and triple of their numbers of
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corresponding protons. The numbers of 24 25 c) 26

Electrons, in both atoms, total 27. d) 28 30
What is the atomic number of the atom with 14. Atom E is isobaric with 60
X and
greater amount of nucleons? isotone with 56 G; What is the number of
9 15 c) 35 electrons that the ion E has4+?
d) 12 e) 18 30 b) 32 c) 28
62
12. Atom E is isobaric with atom d) 26 e) 34
And isosceles with72X, what is the number of 15. The sum of the mass numbers of two
electrons that the ion E has2+? isotopes is 146 and the sum of its neutrons
a) 29 b) 32 c) 35 It is 74. How many electrons does the element have?
30 34 in its fundamental state?
13. There are 2 isotopes, which present 36 b) 45 c) 72
atomic number 6. If they present 13 54 e) 18
total neutrons, calculate the sum of the
mass numbers.

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E. ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
Zigzag rule
It is a practical way to remember the electronic distribution of an atom. For each level, there is
the same number of sublevels. The arrows indicate the direction we should follow when depositing
the electrons in the orbitals, following the increasing order of their energies.
Levels 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Sublevels s2 s s2 s2 s2 s2 s2

p6 p6 p6 p6 p

p 6

6 d1 d1 d1 d1

0 0 0 0

f14 f14
Real capacity 2 8 18 32 32 18 8
Capacity 2 8 18 32 50 72 98
theoretical

Kernel Configuration
It helps us to perform the electronic distribution in a simplified manner.
1s22s22p6 3s23p6 4s23d104p6 5s24d105p6 6s24f145d106p6 7s25f146d107p6

[2He] [10Ne] [18Ar [36Kr] [54Xe] [86Rn] [118Og

Some Electronic Settings:
H (Z = 1) :1s1(one reads one)
He (Z = 2) :1s2(one reads one this two)
Li (Z = 3) :1s22s1
(You cannot put 1s)3since a maximum of 2e- can fit in the "s" sublevel
Be (Z = 4) :1s22s2
Exceptions to the saw rule
It is established that certain configurations such as: Cr, Cu, Ag, Au, Mo, cannot end in ns.2
(n-1)d4oh we2(n-1)d9In these cases, the correct setting is ns.1(n-1)d5to us1(n-1)d10This is

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due to the fact that the ns and (n-1)d orbitals have very close energy values and in this way
there tends to be more unpaired electrons

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Example
Z = 24 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d4 (incorrecto )→1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d5 (correcto)
Z = 47 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d10 4p6 5s2 4d9 (incorrect) →
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1 3d10 4p6 5s1 4d10 (correct)
Memoctenia
SiSoPaSoPaSeDaPensionSeDaPensionSeFueDePaseoSeFueDePaseo
1s22s22p63s23p64s2 3d104p6 5s24d105p6 6s24f145d106p67s25f146d107p6

Relative Energy
Construction of the electron distribution of an atom in its energy levels, sublevels and
orbitals. The distribution is done from lowest to highest relative energy:
E. R. = n + l
It depends on the energy level and sublevel. When 2 orbitals have the same value of ER, it is
more stable or of lower energy, the one that has the lowest value of 'n'.
Example
2s its relative energy will be: E.R.= 2 + 0 = 2
3p on its relative energy will be: E.R.= 3 + 1 = 4
5d its relative energy will be: R.E. = 5 + 2 = 7
4f its relative energy will be: E.R.= 4 + 3 = 7
F. QUANTUM NUMBERS
Principal quantum number (n)
Determine the energy level in which an electron is found. There are two ways to represent
the levels:
Representation of the levels with letters: K, L, M, N, O, P, Q.
Representation of the levels with numbers: 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.

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Secondary or azimuthal quantum number (l)

Determine the sublevel within the main energy level. It is associated with the shape of the orbital.
in which the electron is located.
It has the following values:
Shape
Sharp sublevel (s) l=0 spherical
Main sublevel (p) l=1 bilobular
Diffuse sublevel (d) l=2 tetralobular
Fundamental sublevel (f) l = 3 complex

Magnetic quantum number (ml or m)

Determine the orbital that the electron occupies, the orbitals are represented by lines, ovoids or
squares and electrons with arrows according to this we can find 3 types of orbitals:
The orbitals according to the sublevels are:

sublevel value magnetic

s 0 0
p 1 -1,0,+1

Spin quantum number (ms or s)

This parameter refers to the direction of rotation of the electron on its own axis, the electrons
Those that are located in the same orbital must necessarily have opposite or 'antiparallel' spins.
the representation of the electron as a tiny sphere of electricity spinning on itself is
1 1
 
completely conventional, the values are observed: 2 , 2 By convention, these values

they are associated in directions that are represented by arrows.

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Determination of quantum numbers

Determine the quantum numbers for the expression Z= 26
Step 1: we determine its electronic configuration
1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2 3d6
Step 2: we analyze the last sublevel of the electronic configuration.

Step 3: We input the values for the quantum numbers.

n= 3 l=2 m= -2 s= -1/2

Tipos de orbitales

paired orbital unpaired orbital vacuum orbital

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SELF-EVALUATION 03
1. Dalton's theory proposed in 1803 was II. In any of these states, electron
a contribution to the understanding of the structure it moves following a circular orbit
of the subject, indicate how many around the nucleus.
the propositions are correct:
III. When an atom is in one of these
I. The atom is indivisible, that is, it is not
states, does not radiate; but when changing from a
formed by particles.
state of high energy to a state of
II. Matter is made up of particles
lower energy, the atom emits a quantum
which he called atoms.
of radiation.
III. Compounds are formed by
IV. The states of electronic motion
combination of atoms.
allowed are those in which the
IV. All atoms of the same
the angular momentum of the electron is a
element has the same mass.
integer multiple of h/2n
V. The atoms of different elements
They differ in their mass and in their properties. A) 0 B) 1 C) 2 D) 3 E)5
A) 1 {"B":"2","C":"3"} D) 4 E) 5
4. How many of the following propositions
2. The following statement 'We assume that
Are they correct?
the atom is a sphere of positive charge
I. Rutherford concluded that electrons
uniform, in which are found
they are not high mass particles.
embedded particles negatives
forming layers concentric. II. Rutherford conceptualized the atom as
Corresponds to the atomic model of: a dense core of positive charge, with
A) Bohr B) Rutherford peripheral electrons.
C) Thomson D) Bohr E) Dalton III. Thompson determined the e/m ratio
3. How many of the following postulates of of the electron.
Are Bohr's atoms false?
IV. Planck established that the energy of the
I. In an atom, the electron has light radiation is inversely
only certain defined states proportional to the frequency.
stationary motion that are to him
A) 0 B) 1 C )2 D) 3 E) 4
allowed, each of these states
stationary ones have a fixed energy and 5. What does the atomic model explain?
defined. Dalton?
Matter is made up of atoms.

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b) Atoms have a very nucleus II. The neutron is the subatomic particle
small where almost all is concentrated of greater mass in the atom.
mass III. Except for hydrogen, the
c) The electrical phenomena number of neutrons is equal to
d) None of the other answers greater than the number of protons in
6. What does the atomic model explain? an atomic nucleus.
Thomson? A) VVV B) FVV
a) Matter is not composed of C) VVF D) FVF
atoms. E) FFF
b) The atom is a solid sphere charged 9. Indicate with true (T) or false (F)
positively, and the embedded electrons as appropriate:
inside that sphere I. In an electrically neutral atom
c) Electrical phenomena. there are so many electrons outside the nucleus

d) None of the other answers. like protons inside the nucleus.

II. The particle with the greatest mass in the
7. Which of the following propositions
The atom is the neutron.
Are they correct?
III. Subatomic particles are the
I. The atom is electrically neutral.
electron, proton and neutron.
II. In the nucleus of the atom are found
A) VVV B) VFV
the protons and neutrons, like
C) FVF D) FFV
fundamental particles.
E) VFF
III. For all the nuclides of the
10. Rate as true (T) or false (F)
chemical elements the number of
mass (A) is greater than the number
to the following propositions:
I. The atom is made up of a nucleus
atomic (Z).
and the electronic cloud.
A) I and II B) I and III
II. The mass number A is equal to the
C) II and III D) I, II and III
sum of the atomic number plus the
E) Solo III
number of neutrons.
8. Regarding subatomic particles
III. The nucleus of the atom contains the
indicate the true propositions (T)
neutrons and electrons.
and false (F):
A) VVV B) VVF
I. The particles that have charge
C) VFF D) FFF
The proton and the electron are electric.
E) VVF

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11. Indicate the sets of numbers III. TheX

2+finish its configuration in

quantum states that are not possible. 3d4

I. 4, 3, 2, -1/2 II. 3, 2, -2, +1/2 A) VVV B) VFV C) VFF
III. 5, 4, -5, -1/2 IV. 1, 0, 0, +1 D) FFV E) VVF
V. 6, 3, -3, -1/2 14. What do the configurations have in common?
A) I and III B) II and III C) III and IV electronic configurations of the following elements?

D) II and V E) Only V
Li, Na, and K
12. How many elements have 3 electrons?
disappeared on the third level? Be, Mg y Ca

A) 1 B)2 C)3 B, Al and Ga

D)4 E)5
C, Si and Ge
13. In relation to chemical species
N, P and As
indicate true (T) or false (F)
(F) as appropriate: O, S and Se
X = 24Cr; Y = 26Fe2+
F, Cl and Br
I. X has more unpaired electrons
Li, Be and C
what Y.
And it has 2 electrons in the fourth.
level

15. Complete the following table

3d2 5s1 2 7py 3 6f2 _d 5p5
n 4 2 5 5 1
l 3 0 3 0
m 0 -1 0 +2 -2 +1
s -1/2 +1/2 +1/2 -1/2

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PERIODIC TABLE
A. HISTORY OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
a) Jons Jacob Berzelius
Berzelius in 1814 classified the elements known at his time,
in metals and non-metals, based on properties such as luster
metallic, electrical conductivity and thermal conduction. In 1818,
change the nomenclature of circles and points to letters, taking
the initials of the name in Latin of each element.

b) J. W. Döbereiner - Law of Triads

He proposed that the elements should be arranged in groups of 3 according to their mass and similarity.

properties. In the different groups, the mass of the central element should be the average
of the other two masses. According to Döbereiner's triads we have:

c) J. Newlands - Law of Octaves

He proposed that the known elements be arranged according to their increasing atomic masses.
He observed that after placing seven elements, the eighth had the same properties as
the first, the ninth the same as the second, because I sense that the properties of the
elements repeat every 8 elements.

d) Mendeleev - Meyer
Mendeleev's classification was primarily based on the chemical properties of the
elements, on the other hand, Meyer based his work on their physical properties. Both

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they presented the first rectangular table by arranging the elements according to their atomic mass

growing, so that chemical elements with similar properties would be in the

same column. Additionally, this order allowed for the description of properties of elements still
not discovered like Gallium (eka-aluminum), Scandium (eka-boron) and Germanium (eka-
silicon).
however, elements such as hydrogen did not have a location, they were not considered
noble gases, metals and non-metals could not be clearly distinguished.

This table presents its advantages and at the same time its disadvantages.

Advantages:
The Mendeleev Table allowed for the discovery of many chemical elements because
left blank spaces for unknown elements.
He indulged himself in predicting the properties of some elements that were not
discovered such as he predicted the properties of Gallium, Germanium, Polonium,
(Tellurium), Scandium.

Disadvantages:
The poor location of the hydrogen element in the Table. In this Table, it cannot be differentiated.
between metals and non-metals.
Having ordered the elements in increasing order of their atomic weights.

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e) Moseley
Henry Moseley (1887-1915) was an English chemist and physicist who conducted very significant experiments.

sophisticated ones in which he achieved the diffraction of crystals to obtain and measure the length of
X-ray wave of various chemical elements. The results obtained lead you to
they allowed to find a systematic relationship between the characteristic wavelength of
each element and its atomic number (Z).
The importance of Moseley's discovery lies in the fact that before him, the atomic number
It was simply a notion used but that had not been able to be proven or measured.
experimentally. In the previous classification attempts, the atomic number was
just one more fact, but from Moseley it became the fundamental criterion
for the organization of the elements within the
periodic table.
We will finally comment that, with the data
gathered from his experiments, Moseley succeeded
demonstrate the existence of "gaps" in the table
periodic. Indeed, the chemical elements
43 (technetium), 1 (promethium) and 75 (rhenium) still
they were unknown in the time when it was his turn
to live, but Moseley managed to advance his
existence.

B. DESCRIPTION OF THE CURRENT PERIODIC TABLE

More than half of the elements known today were discovered between 1800 and
1900. During this period, chemists observed that many elements exhibited significant
similarities between them. The recognition of the periodic regularities in the properties
physics and chemical behavior, as well as the need to organize the large amount of
available information about the structure and properties of elemental substances,
led to the development of the periodic table.

The Periodic Table is a document, a scheme, a graphic design where the ...
118 chemical elements in an orderly and classified manner according to their properties.
The modern Periodic Table consists of 18 vertical columns and 7 horizontal rows.

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The vertical columns are known as groups and the horizontal rows are called
call periods.
Within the periodic table, there is group "A" called "Representative Elements" and of the
Group 'B' called 'Transition Elements or Metals'.

PERIODIC TABLE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS (2020)

Periods:
The horizontal rows within the Table are called periods; every Table has 7 periods and
It is named with Arabic numerals.
The period indicates the number of layers or levels that the element has.
Período 1 : “Período Corto” → ( 2 elementos )
Periods 2 and 3: "Short Semi-Periods" → ( 8 elements )
Period 4 and 5: 'Long periods' → (18 elements)
Period 6 and 7: "Extrlong Periods" → (32 elements)

Groups:
There are columns in the Table and a total of 18 vertical columns in the Periodic Table.
presents 2 major groups: the elements of group A and the elements of group B.

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a) Family A (Representative Elements)

They are called by this name because the elements are located in this group.
the most well-known, the most abundant in nature. They are found located in both
extremes of the periodic table.
These elements are recognized because their electronic configuration must end in
sublevels type 's' or 'p'.
The elements of this group have only the last energy level incomplete.
Group A is made up of 8 subgroups that are named with Roman numerals.

Family of alkaline metals → ns1(1e - valence electron)

IIA: "Family of the Alkaline Earth Metals" → ns2(2e - from Valencia)
IIIA: 'Family of the Earth Elements' → np1→ (3 e - from Valencia
Carbonoids → np2(4e - de Valencia)
Nitrogenoids → np3(5e - from Valencia)
Via: 'Anfígenos' or 'Chalcogens' → np4(6e - from Valencia)
VIIA: 'Halogens' → np5(7e - from Valencia)
VIIIA: Group Zero: 'Noble Gases' → np6(8e - from Valencia)

b) Family B (Transition Elements)

They are located in the central part and at the end of the Table.
Any element that belongs to this group must have its electronic configuration
ending in sublevels 'd' or 'f'
These elements from this group are metallic elements.
Group B is subdivided into 8 small subgroups: IB - IIB - IIIB - IVB - VB - VIB -
VIIB - VIIIB
c) Internal transition elements
Its electronic configuration must end in 'f' type sublevels.
These elements are made up of fourteen vertical columns.
These elements are formed by two series, each series corresponds to a period:
6th Period: Series of the lanthanides (Z = 58 to Z = 71) → Lanthanum (La)
7th Period: Series of the Actinides (Z = 90 to Z = 103) → Actinium (Ac)

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The element Uranium (Z = 92) is one of the first radioactive elements of the
nature and all those elements that are located after Uranium are called
they are called transuranic elements and most of them are almost all unstable elements.
nature.

C. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

a) Metals
They are the most abundant elements in nature. A metal is defined as that atom or
element in which in a chemical reaction has the property of donating electrons.
Metals donate electrons (electropositive)
They are considered good conductors of heat and electricity.
Metals can oxidize quite easily.
They oxidize → (they lose electrons).
Todos los metales son sólidos en estado natural, pero en mercurio es el único metal en
natural liquid state.
b) Non-metals
They are not very abundant elements in the periodic table.
are located in group A of the Table in the "p" block, these elements
they can be considered as poor conductors of heat and electricity.
Nonmetals have the property of being reduced.
Non-metals under normal and natural conditions can be in solid, liquid state
and gaseous.
Solid: Sulfur, Selenium, Iodine.
Liquid: Bromine
Gases: Oxígeno, Nitrógeno, Flúor, Cloro (O2, N2, F2, Cl2)
Nonmetals are considered to be highly electronegative elements.
c) Metalloids
They are very rare elements in nature, these elements are found in the
Border between metal and non-metal, for this reason they present metallic and non-metallic properties.

metallic. They are located in the P block occupying a diagonal region.

Among the elements considered as metalloids we have: Boron, Silicon, Germanium,
Arsénico, Antimonio (Sb), Teluro (Te), Polonio (Po), Astato (At)

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Noble gases
Noble gases are referred to all those elements that have a configuration
stable electronics are elements that do not have the power of chemical combination because
its last shell has 8 electrons. All these elements are gases in their natural state and
they are located in block 'p' occupying group VIII A.

D. BLOCKS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE

Block s. It includes groups I A and II A, whose configurations end in the s sublevel.
Block d. It includes groups I B to VIII B, whose electrons occupy up to the d sublevel.
They are transition elements, located in the central region of 10 columns.
Block p. It includes the groups from III A to VIII A, whose configurations end in the
sublevelp.
Block f. It includes elements whose electrons occupy up to the f sublevel. From 4f1until
4f14for the lanthanides and from 5f1up to 5f14for the actinides.

E. LOCATION OF ELEMENTS IN THE PERIODIC TABLE

a) Family A:
For family A, the s and p sub-levels must be taken into account, that is, we must add the
electrons of the last energy level corresponding to the s and p sublevels, the sum of
These electrons will directly give us the group number.
Example
Z = 32 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p2; then # group = 2 e- s + 2 e- p = 4
por lo tanto el elemento se encuentra en el grupo IV-A y periodo 4

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b) Family B:
For family B, the s and d sublevels must be taken into account, which means we must add them.
electrons of the last s and d sublevels, the sum of these electrons will give us the number
of group according to the following table.

of group III-B IV-B V-B VI-B VII-B VIII-B I-B II-B

Sum of electrons 3 4 5 6 7 8, 9, 10, 11, 12

Example
Z = 45 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p65s24d7; then # group = 2 e- s + 7 e- d = 9
therefore, the element is found in group VIII-B and period 5.

F. PERIODIC PROPERTIES
atomic radio
It is the distance from the center of the nucleus of an atom to the outermost energy level.
The atomic radius is the measure of the size of the atom. In the periodic table, the variation of
atomic radio is:
Period: Increases from left to right.
Group: Increases from top to bottom.
b) Metallic character
Metallic character describes the set of chemical properties that are associated with the
elements classified as metals in the periodic table. Metallic character depends on the
the ability of an element to lose its outer valence electrons.
Examples of properties related to metallic character include thermal conductivity.
and electric, metallic luster, hardness, ductility, and malleability. The most 'metallic' element
It is francium, followed by cesium. In general, the increases of a metallic nature as it
they move towards the lower right side of the periodic table.
Period: Increases from left to right.
Group: Increase from top to bottom.

c) Ionization energy
It is the minimum energy required to remove an electron from an atom; this process
It is called Ionization Reaction. The electrons that are stripped away are from the outermost level and

the

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An atom that loses them becomes a positive ION. In the periodic table, it has the following
variation
Period: Increases from left to right.
Group: Increases from the bottom up.

d) Electron affinity
It is the energy that an atom releases to capture an electron. The electron affinity will increase.
by decreasing the size of the atom.
Period: Increases from left to right
Group: Increases from the bottom up
e) Electronegativity
It is the ability of atoms to attract and retain the electrons that participate in a
chemical bond. The variation is as follows:
Period: Increases from left to right
Group: Increases from the bottom up.
G. VARIATION OF PERIODIC PROPERTIES IN THE MODERN TABLE

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SELF-ASSESSMENT 04
1. Starting from the electronic configuration, it is possible to determine both the group and the period in
the location of a chemical element. Observe the two resolved examples and complete the table in your
notebook
ELEMENT CONFIGURATION COVER OF GROUP PERIOD
CHEMICAL VALENCIA
Al
C
Fe
No
O
N
Cl
In
Ar
Sn
S
B

2. Given the following statements: 4. The thermal electronic configuration in

The horizontal rows in the T.P. are called 3p2. The element belongs to the group:
group. AI b) IIA c) IIIA
II. In group IB are: Cu, Ag, Au
d) IV e) VA
III. Hydrogen is a metal.
a) VVV b) FFF c) FVF 5. An Ion X is available-2what is isoelectronic
d) VVF e)FFV with and belonging to the fourth period and

3. The electronic configuration of an atom VIA group. Determine the group to which
ends in 5p4. Then the element element X belongs
belongs to the group: IA b) IIA c) IIIA
a) VA b) BY c) VAT
d) VAT e) VA
{"d":"VIIA","e":"IIA"}

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6. What are the quantum numbers of d) The N.C. of the last electron are: 3,1,
last electron of an element that is +1, +1/2
find in the fourth period and group Its atomic number is 15
VA? a) 5,4,-2,+1/2 b) 4,2,+1,+1/2 An element has 12 filled orbitals in
its configuration, then it is affirmed:
c) 3,2,0,+1/2 d) 5.1, +1, 1/2
I. It is a representative element
e) 4.1, +1, +1/2
It is located in the fourth period
7. An element is found in the second
III. Belongs to group VIIB
period and in group VIIIA. Find the
N.C. game of the last electron. IV. It is a non-metal
a) 2,1,0,+1/2 b) 2,1,+1,-1/2 c) 2,1,+1,+1/2
I and II b) I, II, III c) II, III, IV
d) 2,1,-1,-1/2 e) 2,0,0,-1/2
d) I and III N.A.
8. If the last distributed electron of a
atom has the N.C.: 4,0,0,+1/2. Find the 12. Indicate which of the configurations is false:
group and period. a) Alkaline: ns 1 b) Alkaline earth: ns 2
a) IIA,5 b) IIA,3 c) IA,4 c) Carbonoide: np2d) Halógeno: np 5

d) IIA,4 e) IA,3 e) Anfígeno: np 3

13. Which shown relationship is incorrect?
9. An element has two isotopes whose
Alkaline Li, Na, K, Rb
mass numbers add up to 68, and present in
b) Alkaline earth Mg, Ca, Sr
total 38 neutrons. Indicate the location of the
Carbonoid C, Si, Ar
element in the periodic table.
d) Coinage Metals Cu, Ag, Au
a) AI,4 b) IIA,2 c)IIIA,3
Halogen F, Cl, Br, I
d) VAT,3 e) VA,3 14. From the electronic distribution of a

10. An element has 30 neutrons and its element: 1s 22s 2p

2 23s 3p
2 Regarding
1 the
mass number is to the number of Periodic table we could say that:
neutrons like 3 is to 2. It is incorrect: It is a ground floor (Boroide)

It is a representative election. b) It is a carbonoid

b) Its configuration ends in 3p3 c) It is a transition metal
It has 3 valence electrons. d) Belongs to the 4th period
e) It belongs to group IA

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Chemical bond
A. DEFINITION
This refers to any force that, acting on atoms, keeps them together forming the
molecules. The universal tendency of matter is to find its greatest stability.
less energy). According to this trend, atoms join together to form aggregates of
lower energy state and consequently greater stability, and they achieve this by releasing energy.

B. VALENCE ELECTRONS
Valence electrons are the electrons that are found in the highest energy levels.
energy of the atom, these being responsible for the interaction between atoms of different
species or among the atoms of the same species.
These electrons, known as 'valence electrons', are the ones that have the ease of
form links. These links can occur in different ways, either by exchanging them
electrons, through the sharing of pairs between the atoms in question or by the type of interaction
that is presented in the metallic bond, which consists of an "overlap" of bands. Depending on
the number of these electrons will be the number of bonds that each atom can form with another
others.
Only the outer electrons of an atom can be attracted by another nearby atom. The
The valence of an element is the number of electrons it needs or has in excess to have.
completing their last level. The valence of noble gases, therefore, will be zero, since they have
I completed the last level. In the case of sodium, the valence is 1, as it has a single electron of.
Valencia, if it loses an electron, will have a complete outer shell.

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C. LEWIS NOTATION
It is the conventional representation of valence electrons using dots or
quotes that are placed around the element symbol, as shown in the following
figure.

D. OCTET RULE
The octet rule, stated in 1916 by Walter Kossel, states that the tendency of ions to
the elements of the periodic system is to complete their last energy levels with an amount
of 8 electrons, in such a way that it acquires a very stable configuration. This configuration is
similar to that of a noble gas, the elements located at the far right of the periodic table.
Noble gases are electrochemically stable elements, as they fulfill the structure.
of Lewis, their inert gases, meaning that they are very difficult to react with any other element. This
the rule applies to the creation of bonds between atoms, the nature of these bonds
will determine the behavior and properties of the molecules.

E. INTERATOMIC LINKS
Ionic bond
This type of bond occurs between a non-metallic atom and a metallic one, which have a
a high difference in electronegativities has the following characteristics:
The transfer of valence electrons is from the metal to the non-metal.
The existence of ions with opposite charges creates an attractive force between them.
Under environmental conditions, they are in a solid state (crystals).
When mixed, forming liquid solutions, it conducts easily.
the electric current.
Ionic bonding generally occurs when the difference in electronegativity is
greater than or equal to 1.7.

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There are certain ionic compounds that are used in medicine, for example:

Characteristic of Ionic Compounds

This type of bond is generally formed between a metal and a nonmetal
The metal will always donate the electron and the nonmetal will receive the electron.
This type of bond does not form true molecules, only the atoms are bonded.
by electrostatic forces.
Ionic compounds are solid compounds that exhibit the following
characteristics.
Water soluble
Good conductors of electric current
They are crystalline solids with a high melting point (solid - liquid)
Good conductors of heat.

covalent bond
a) Polar covalent bond
Atoms of different elements and with differences in electronegativity are linked by
above 0.5. This is how electromagnetic dipoles are formed.

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b) Nonpolar covalent bond

Atoms of the same element or of identical polarities are linked, with one difference.
of very low electronegativity (less than 0.4). The electron cloud, thus, is
attracted equally by both nuclei and no molecular dipole is formed.

c) Coordinated or dative covalent bond

It is that type of bond in which one of the atoms provides the pair of electrons.
to complete the octet. Only one provides the pair of electrons that they will both share. The
another contributes its empty orbital. It is represented by an arrow pointing to the element.
which did not contribute any electron. For example:

For the number of shared links we have:

The following types of covalent bonds exist, starting from the
number of electrons shared by the bonded atoms:
Simple. The bonded atoms share a pair of
electrons in their outer shell (one electron each). For
example: H-H (Hydrogen-Hydrogen), H-Cl (Hydrogen-Chlorine)
Chlorine.
Double. The bonded atoms contribute two electrons each.
one, forming a bond of two pairs of electrons. By
example: O=O (Oxygen-Oxygen), O=C=O (Oxygen-
Carbon-Oxygen.

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Triple. In this case, the bonded atoms provide three pairs of electrons, that is, six.
in total. For example: N≡N (Nitrogen-Nitrogen).

c) METAL LINK
Este enlace es propio de los elementos metálicos, en este
the electrons of the atoms are transferred
continuously from one atom to another generating a dense.
electronic cloud. This characteristic of metallic bonding
gives rise to very important properties of the element
metallic, like metallic shine and the good
electronic conductivity.

F. INTERMOLECULAR LINKS
Let's consider the attractive forces that act between molecules, ions, and between both.
intermolecular forces determine whether a substance will exist in gaseous, liquid, or solid form at
determined pressure and temperature, and whether they will dissolve in each other.

Van der Waals forces are the attractive forces between different molecules or between the
parts of the same molecule. They are weak attractive forces that are established between
electrically neutral molecules (polar and nonpolar). Among these forces we have:

a) ION-DIPOLE LINK
In the ion-dipole link, the ions of a substance can interact with the poles of the
polar covalent molecules: the negative part attracts the positive ion (cation) and the part
positive, attracts the negative ion (anion); that is to say, that the parts of each molecule join together to

through the attractive forces of opposite charges.

Ion-dipole forces are important for
the dissolutions of ionic substances in
liquids; for example, in a solution
aqueous sodium chloride, the sodium ions and
chlorine is surrounded by water molecules that

they act as an electrical insulator, since

they keep the ions separated.

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b) DIPole-DIPole LINK
Dipole-dipole interactions exist between polar covalent molecules due to the
attraction of the positively charged area of one molecule and the negatively charged area of another, which

it causes the molecules to orient themselves with respect to one another.

c) LONDON DISPERSION FORCES

London dispersion forces are weak forces that usually increase with size.
of molecules. This type of forces was named this way in honor of the German physicist-
American forces London; they are also known as London forces or forces of
dispersion. They are the only type of intermolecular forces that occur in substances.
symmetrical like: CO2, N2, Br2y I2, and in monatomic species of noble gases.

d) HYDROGEN BRIDGE LINK

This is the strongest intermolecular bond compared to others of this type, although it is weaker.
in comparison of covalent and ionic bonds.
The hydrogen bond is an attraction that
is carried out between a hydrogen atom with a
highly electronegative atom: fluorine, oxygen,
nitrogen, which has a pair of free electrons
they attract hydrogen, partially positive, from another
molecule, forming an attraction that binds the
molecules. For example, water is one of the substances
What does this link present?

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SELF-EVALUATION 05
1. Regarding chemical bonds, indicate 3. Regarding the proposals, indicate what
true (T) or false (F): does not correspond
They are forces of attraction that manifest I. In the ionic bond it is fulfilled by the
electromagnetically. general that ∆EN > 1.7.
II. It originates in atoms due to the II. In the structure of the ammonium ion:+1NH
valence electrons and in molecules they can account for 3 simple links and 4
due to its poles. sigma (σ) links.
They are more intense at the molecular level than at III. The H-F bond is of lesser character
atomic level. ionic than the H-O bond.
It is formed due to the tendency to create IV. A high binding energy indicates
high atomic and molecular systems great stability for the formed compound.
energy. A) Only III B) I and III C) II, III
A) VVFV B) VFFV C) VVVF D) I, II E) II and IV
D) FVVF E) FVVV 4. The chemical formulas are given below
2. Of the statements about the links three simple ionic compounds: BaO,
interatomic, indicate true (V) or false Rb2S and Na3N, indicate for each case the
(F): number of electrons transferred in their
The union between nonmetals tends to be training
for covalence for possessing these values A) 3, 2 and 2 B) 1, 2 and 3 C) 2, 2 and 3
of very close electronegativity. D) 3, 3 and 2 E) 1, 2 and 3
The compounds generated by 5. The following indicates the structure of
electron transfer forms an amine (isopropyl amine) whose energy of
crystalline solids. formation (total bond energy) is
Ionic compounds lose their 4654 kJ/mol. Find the N-H bond energy.
electrical conductivity when being
melted or dissolved in water.
The following compound NaOH is ionic.
in addition to having a covalent bond in kJ/mol according to:

internally. A) 353 B) 293 C) 493

D) 343 E) 393
A) VVFV B) FVFF C) FVVF
D) Fire Brigade E) VFVV 6. Below is the structure of
naphthalene, according to that indicate the
number of sigma (σ) and pi links
(π) that presents:
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10. Indicate the incorrect statement:

A) Every diatomic molecule contains a bond
covalent.
A) 19 σ y 5 π B) 11 σ y 6 π C) 19 σ y 6 π B) The bonding orbitals result from the
D) 11 σ y 5 π E) 15 σ y 5 π combination of atomic orbitals that
7. After establishing the Lewis structures they unite.

for the following substances: H2CO3y C) If a molecule has polar bonds,

HCN. Find the total number of links that then it will necessarily be polar.

it can be counted. D) Gases have polar molecules or

A) 7 σ y 3 π B) 5 σ y 2 π C) 6 σ y 4 π apolar

D) 5 σ y 3 π E) 8 σ y 3 π E) London forces between molecules

8. Regarding the covalent compounds that Apolar molecules can be stronger than the bond.

property is not correct: hydrogen bridge.

A) They are generally poorly soluble in water. 11. Indicate the incorrect proposition(s):

They are electrical and thermal insulators. I. CO2 has 3 resonance structures.

C) In environmental conditions they can be II. H2O has 2 resonance structures.

solids, liquids or gases. III. SO3 has a resonance hybrid.

D) They are only made up of non-atoms IV. The C6H6 and CO3it2- has no structure

metallic. resonant.

E) The compounds of petroleum I and II B) II and IV C) III and IV

["D) I, II and IV","E) II, III and IV"]
they are generally covalent compounds.
9. After developing the molecular structure 12. Indicate true or false to the following

of sulfur dichloride (SCl2): propositions:

I. The molecule CHCl3it is polar.
I. There are 20 valence electrons.
II. The HCN molecule has a shape
It has two normal covalent bonds.
angular geometric in V.
III. There is a dative link.
III. The molecule BeCl2it is linear.
IV. All bonds are polar.
IV. In the H2SO4the hybridization of sulfur is
It is correct:
A) Only I B) Only II C) II, III sp2.

D) I, II and IV E) II, III, IV

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INORGANIC NOMENCLATURE
A. VALENCE OF CHEMICAL ELEMENTS
NO METALS
Elements Valencia Symbols Elements Symbol Valencia

Hydrogen H 1 Nitrogen N 1,3,5

Fluorine F Phosphorus P
Chlorine Cl Arsenic As
Bromo Br 1,3,5,7 Antimony Sb 3.5
Yodo I
Oxygen O 2 Big B 3
Sulfur S Carbon C
Selenium If 2,4,6 Silicon Yes 2.4
Tellurium You Germanium He
METALS
Elements Symbols Valencia Elements Symbols Valencia
Lithium Li Tin Sn
Sodium Na Lead Pb 2.4
Potassium K Platinum Pt
Rubidium Rb 1 Palladio Pd
Cesium Czech Republic Aluminum Al 3
France Fr Gold At 1.3
Silver Ag
Beryllium Be Iron Iron
Magnesium Mg Cobalt What 2.3
Football Ca Nickel You
Strontium Sr 2
Bario Ba Copper Cu 1,2
Five Zn Mercury Hg
Cadmium Cd
Radio Ra

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Valencia
Elements Symbols
No Metal Metal
Vanadium V 4, 5 2, 3
Chrome Cr 6 2, 3
Manganese Mn 4, 6, 7 2, 3

B. OXIDATION STATES
Rules for determining oxidation states
Any element that is in its free state has an EO of zero.
2. Hydrogen always acts with EO = +1, except when it combines with metals.
(hydrides) that acts with EO= - 1.
3. Oxygen always acts with EO = -2 except in peroxides where it acts with EO = -1.
when combined with fluorine it acts EO = +2
4. The alkaline metals (Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr) (Group IA) always act with EO = +1.
5. The alkaline earth metals (Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra). Group IIA always acts EO = +2.
6. The algebraic sum of the oxidation states of the elements in a neutral compound is equal to zero and in

for an ion or radical, the sum equals its charge.

∑EO(compuesto) = 0 (neutro) ; ∑EO(radical) = q
7. When a halogen (F, Cl, Br, I) accompanies a metal its EO is equal to -1, when a
Anfígeno (S, Se, Te) accompanies a metal; its EO is equal to -2.

C. NAMING SYSTEMS
a) Stock System
In this type of nomenclature, when the element forming the compound has more than one
Valencia, this is indicated at the end, in Roman numerals and in parentheses:
Fe(OH)2Iron (II) hydroxide
Fe(OH)3Iron(III) hydroxide

b) Sistema IUPAC
To name chemical compounds according to this nomenclature, the following prefixes are used:
{"MONO_":"ONE_","DI_":"TWO_","TRI_":"THREE_","TETRA_":"FOUR_","PENTA_":"FIVE_","HEXA_":"SIX_","HEPTA_":"SEVEN_"}

Cl2O3Dichlorine trioxide
I2The diode monoxide

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c) Common, classic, traditional, systematic system.

In this nomenclature, in order to distinguish with what valence the elements operate in that
composed a series of prefixes and suffixes are used. According to the valences of the
we place ourselves in its respective column.

D. INORGANIC FUNCTIONS
a) OXIDES FUNCTION
BASIC OXIDES
They are binary compounds formed by the combination of a metal and oxygen. Their formula
general M2OX
Where M is a metal and X the valence of the metal (the 2 corresponds to the valence of oxygen).
The valences of the elements are exchanged among them and are placed as subscripts. (If the
valencia is even simplifies.

ACID OXIDES
They are binary compounds formed by a non-metal and oxygen. Their general formula is: N2OX
Where N is a non-metal and X is the valence of the non-metal (the 2 corresponds to the valence of the
oxygen) .
The valences of the elements are exchanged among themselves and are placed as subscripts. (If the
Valencia is even, it simplifies.

COMPOUND OXIDES OR SALTS

They result from the combination of two oxides of the same metal.
To represent the formulas of an oxide of the same metal, one proceeds to add.
arithmetic of the number of atoms of both metal and oxygen.
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The metals Ni, Co, Fe, Cr, Mn, and Pb form double oxides or compounds.
Nomenclature
The word 'oxide' is placed first and then the metal is named accordingly.
endings of oso and ico, or also put the words oxide salino and then the name of
metal. For example:
Nickel: NiO nickelous oxide
You2O3nickelic oxide
You3O4nickelous-nickelic oxide / Nickel salt oxide.
b) HYDRIDE FUNCTION
Metal hydrides
They are binary compounds formed by a metal and Hydrogen. Their general formula is: MHX
Where M is a metal and X is the valence of the metal. Hydrogen always has a valence of 1.

Non-metallic hydrides
There are non-metals such as nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, carbon, silicon, and boron that
compounds formed with hydrogen that have special names.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, and boron function with a valence of 3 while the
carbon and silicon do it with valence 4.
Formula Name Systematic name
traditional
BH3 Borano Boron trihydride
CH4 Methane methane
SiH4 Silano Silicon tetrahydride
GeH4 German Germanium tetrahydride
NH3 Ammonia Nitrogen trihydride
PH3 Phosphine Phosphine
AsH3 Arsina Arsenic trihydride
SbH3 Estibina Antimony trihydride

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B2H6 Diborane Dihydrido diboron

c) HYDROXIDE FUNCTION
Hydroxides are obtained by combining a basic or metallic oxide with water, they are named
also as alkalis or bases.
Basic Oxide + WATER → HYDROXIDE
They are compounds formed by a metal and the hydroxyl group (OH). Their general formula is:
M(OH)X
Where M is a metal and X is the valence of the metal; the group (OH) always has a valence of 1.
Example:
Li2O + H2O → LiOH Lithium hydroxide.
CuO + H2O → Cu(OH)2 Copper hydroxide.

d) ACID FUNCTION
1. Hydracid acids
They are binary compounds formed by a non-metal and hydrogen. The non-metals that form
these acids are the following:
Fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine (all of them work with valence 1)
Sulfur, selenium, tellurium (work with a valence of 2).
2. Oxoacids
They are ternary compounds formed by a non-metal, oxygen, and hydrogen. They are obtained from
starting from the corresponding acid oxide or anhydride by adding a water molecule (H2O).
Its general formula is: H2O + NM2Ox = HaNMbOc
Where H is hydrogen, NM is the non-metal, and O is oxygen.

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Direct formation of oxyacids

Valencia by Odd Valencia Special case

(C, Si, S, Se, Te) (N, F, Cl, Br, I) (P, As, Sb, B)
H2XO(v + 2) / 2 HXO(v+1)/2 H3XO(v+3)/2
H2SO4 Hypochlorous acid3 H3PO4

e) SALES FUNCTION
They are inorganic compounds obtained from neutralization reactions (reaction
between an acid and a base), they can have binary, ternary, quaternary formulas, etc.
Theoretically, they result from the substitution of the hydrogens of the acid by metals.

ACID + BASE → SALT + WATER

1. Formation of polyatomic radicals
They are obtained by totally or partially extracting the 'H' from the acid, generating the radicals.

neutrals and acidic radicals. The suffixes of the acid change when becoming a radical.
Acid Radical
ico ato
bear it
hydric uro

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2. Sales oxisales
They are obtained by replacing all the hydrogens of an oxyacid with a metal.
The valence of the metal is placed as a subscript to the rest of the acid without the hydrogens. The

The number of hydrogens removed from the acid is added as a subscript to the metal.
They are named by replacing the suffixes we used in the acid (-ous and -ic) with the suffixes
-ito and -ato respectively. Chemically, they are compounds that result from the combination:
oxacid with a hydroxide.

FORMULA CLASSIC STOCK SYSTEMATICS

AgSO4 Silver sulfate Silver(I) sulfate Silver tetraoxosulfate (VI)
Potassium chlorate
Potassium
2 chlorite Potassium chlorite (I) Potassium dioxochlorate (III)
MnPO4 ["Manganese phosphate","Magnesium (III) phosphate","Tetraphosphate"] (V) of
manganese (III)

3. Sales halo ideas

They are obtained by replacing the hydrogens of the corresponding hydrosulfuric acid with a metal.
They are named with the name of the non-metal ending in -ide followed by the name of the metal. If
The metal has more than one valence, which is indicated at the end, in Roman numerals and in parentheses.

The number of hydrogens removed from the acid is written as a subscript to the metal. It
They form from the combination of a hydroid acid with a hydroxide.

For the formulation, the cation is written first, followed by the anion, and the first is named.
anion, followed by the cation.

Li+1 + S-2 → Li2S Lithium sulfide

FORMULA CLASSIC STOCK

FeS Ferrous sulfide Iron(II) sulfide
PbCl4 Lead chloride Lead(IV) chloride
SnSe Stannous selenide Tin(II) selenide

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SELF-ASSESSMENT 06
1. On the formulation and nomenclature of
5. Indicate the pair of compounds that when
inorganic compounds, indicate true
reacting with water produces a base:
(V) True (F): A)
K2O;I2O3
It indicates the procedures to give B)
To the2O3;SO3
the formula and the name to the
C)
I2O5MgO
compounds.
D)
CaO;Na2O
The oxidation state exists only for
E)
Cl2O3;I2O5
the species that form ionic bonds.
Hydrogen only presents state of 6. Correctly match both columns:
oxidation +1. A)
SiO2 I. Quick lime.
A) FFV B) VFV C) VVF B)
Mg(OH)2 II. Lime Mortar.
D) VFF E) FVF C)
Ca(OH)2 III. Milk of Magnesia.

2. In which of the following alternatives do you have

D)
Pb3O4 IV. Silica.

a pentavalent element: V. Minio.

A) H3PO3B) NaNO2 C) CaCO3 A) AI, BV, CIV, DII

D) HClO3E) ZnCO3 B) AII, BIV, CI, DIII

C) AIV, BI, CIII, DV
3. Indicate how many oxides are of character
D) AIII, BII, CI, DIV
acid or base respectively in:
E) AIV, BIII, CII, DV
*
CaO * Bi2O5 * P2O5
7. A metallic atom when forming a hydroxide
*
Barium Oxide
To2O3 * CO2
generate a molecule of nine atoms, if
*
Cl2O * Cu2O Mn2O7
this metal forms an oxide. Find the
*
chromium oxide3
number of atoms that make up that
A) 2, 8 B) 7, 3 C) 4, 6
composed:
D) 6, 4 E) 5, 5
Six B) Dos C) Tres
4. Which of the following compounds is D) Cuatro E) Cinco
incorrectly named?
8. Regarding inorganic functions
A)
No2Sodium oxide.
point out the incorrect one:
B)
CaO: Calcium oxide.
A) Oxygen + metal Basic oxide.
C)
CO2Carbon dioxide.
B) Basic oxide + H2O Hydroxide
D)
Cl2O5Chlorine pentoxide.
C) Alkalis + H2O Hydroxide + H2
E)
Fe3O4Double oxide of iron.
D) Acid oxide + H2O oxacid
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E) Oxygen + element Acid oxide. Radical perchlorate

9. Indicate the option that shows the Radical permanganate

incorrect relationship 11. When chloric acid reacts with the

A)
N2O3Dinitrogen trioxide. potassium hydroxide form.
B)
Mg(OH)2Magnesium hydroxide (II) A) Potassium chloride and water
C)
H2O2Hydrogen peroxide. B) Sodium chloride and water
D)
CaO: Calcium oxide. C) Water and a haloid salt
E)
Pb(OH)4Lead hydroxide. D) A salt and potassium chloride

10. Formulate the following substances: E) Potassium chlorate and water

12. Indicate the atomicity of the bleach

Radical sulfate
Radical nitrite A) 6 B) 8 C) 9 D) 7 E) 3
3) Radical hyposulphite

[Link] la siguiente tabla indicando el tipo de compuesto inorgánico y el nombre o fórmula

as appropriate

COMPOUND TYPE OF NAME OR FORMULA

COMPOUND
Al2O3
Cd (BrO4)2
Hypobromous acid
HBr
Iron(II) nitrate
Co2O3
Nickel(III) carbonate
Rubidium oxide
CdO
Zinc Bromide
HIO
Mercurous sulfide
AgCl
Br2O5
Hydrobromic acid
Cadmium chloride
Periodic acid
Hypochlorous acid3
Iron(III) hydroxide
Mg (OH)2
Phosphoric acid
Lead (IV) sulfate

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UNIT 02
CHEMICAL REACTIONS
A. DEFINITION
Chemical reactions are the changes produced in the nature and composition of
substances due to thermodynamic effects such as pressure and temperature; kinetic effects such as a
catalyst; photochemicals such as UV radiations; etc. producing new substances with
properties different from those of the original substances.
In a chemical reaction, the initial substances are called reactants and the substances that are produced are called products.

The starting materials are called products. During a chemical reaction, atoms, molecules, or ions
they interact and rearrange with each other to form the products. During this process, they break apart
chemical bonds and new bonds are formed. The reactants and products can be in a state
solid, liquid or gaseous, or they can be in solution.

The evidence of the development of a chemical reaction;

It exists when observed.
Formation of precipitates (solids).
Emission of gaseous species with temperature change.
Formation of a gas.
Detachment of light and energy.

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B. TYPES OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS

Combination or Addition Prescriptions

N2+ 3 H2 2 NH3 CaO + H2The Ca(OH)2

Decomposition Rx
2 HgO 2 Hg + O2 2 KClO3 2 KCl + 3 O2
Displacement or Substitution Rx
2 Ag + 2 HCl 2 AgCl + H2 Pb + 2 HNO3 Pb(NO3)2+ H2
Double Displacement or Metathesis Reactions
Silver nitrate3sodium chloride NaNO3Silver chloride

2 Bi(NO3)3+ 3 H2S 6 HNO3+ Bi2S3

Combustion Rxs
a.
Complete Substance + O2 CO2+ H2O
b.
Incomplete Substance + O2 Carbon monoxide + Hydrogen2O

Rxs reversible
CO + H2O ↔ H2+ CO2
Irreversible Rxs
2KClO32KCl + 3O2
Exothermic reactions. They are those that release heat.
C3H8+ 502→ 3CO2+ 4 H2O + heat ∆ =
Endothermic reactions - These are the ones that absorb heat.

2CO2+ 6H2O + heat → C6H12O6+ 6O2 ∆ =

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C. BALANCING METHODS
a) Trial and error method

It is used for simple chemical equations, where simple inspection can achieve it.
the balance.
For example: N2+ H2 NH3
We put a 2 in front of the NH3to have 2 'N' on both sides.
N2+ H2 2 NH3
This originated 6 'H' in the second member, so there must also be 6 'H' in the first.
member. This is achieved by placing a 3 in front of the hydrogen.
N2+ 3 H2 2 NH3
So it remains balanced.

b) REDOX Method
They are those reactions where gain and loss of electrons occur or a variation
in the oxidation number of atoms. The term REDOX comes from two words:
Reduction and Oxidation.
Oxidation is a phenomenon where there is a loss of electrons or an increase in the
oxidation number.
Feº - 2e- → Fe+2
Reduction is a phenomenon where there is a gain of electrons or a decrease in
the oxidation number.
Sº +2e- → S-2

Steps to balance by the redox method

Assign to all atoms their EO.
2. Determine who gains or loses electrons and how many electrons they gain or lose.
3. If more than one atom loses or gains electrons in a formula unit, determine the
total loss or gain per unit formula.
4. They are multiplied by appropriate factors in such a way that the number of electrons gained
is equal to the number of electrons lost. Introducing the appropriate coefficient in front of
the formula of each one on the left side of the equation (see examples).
5. Complete the equation balance by trial and error. First, we balance the atoms that have
gained or lost electrons, according to atoms different from O and H. thirdly the atoms
of H and finally the O.

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SELF-EVALUATION 07
1. Name what type of reaction it is:

N2+ 3 H2 2 NH3 Reaction of

Pb(NO3)2+ 2 AI 2 KNO3+ PbI2 Reaction of

Pb + 2 HNO3 Pb(NO3)2+ H2 Reaction of

2 Bi(NO3)3+ 3 H2S 6 HNO3+ Bi2S3 Reaction of

2 C3H8+ 7 O2 6 Co + 8 H2O Reaction of

2 C4H10+ 13 O2 8 CO2+ 10 H2O Reaction of

Cl2+ 2 AI 2 KCl + I2 Reaction of

2 H2The 2 H2 + O2 Reaction of

H2SO4+ 2 KOH K2SO4+ 2 H2O Reaction of

2. Balance and indicate the sum of coefficients of the chemical reaction

coefficients: H2+ N2 NH3 balaceada is:

a) 2 b) 3 c) 6 7n - 3 b) 7n - 1

d) 5 e) 7 7n 1 7n 3

c) 3n - 1 d) 2 e) 2
3. Balance and give as a response the
coefficient of water: 6. Balance by redox:
a) Ag + HNO3 Silver Nitrate3+ NO + H2O
H3PO4Bi(OH)5 Bi3PO4)5+ H2O b) Hg + HNO3 Hg(NO3)2+ NO +
a) 10 b) 15 c) 30 H2O

d) 20 N.A.
c) MnO2+ HCl MnCl2+ H2O + Cl2
d) Cu + H2SO4 Cu(SO4) + SO2+
4. When balancing: AC12H22O11+bO2 m
H2O
CO2+nH2Or it has to be: a it must be:
b
e)
Cl2+ H2O HClO + HCl
m n
5.
The complete combustion of 2 moles of a
a) 13/23 12/11 c) 37/46
alkyne: CnH2n-2the sum of all the
d) 37/33 e) 2/11

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7. Complete the siguientes
reactions, noting in the space
corresponding the substance
chemistry.
a)
Al(s) + NiCl2(aq) +

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b)
Mg(s) + HNO3(aq) +

c) 9. Balance the following equation, then

+ KI(aq) KCl(aq) +
indicate the sum of coefficients:
d)
Al(s) + Fe2O3(s) FeS(s) H2S + HNO3 S + NO2+ H2O
e)
Na2S(aq) + CuSO4(aq) + CuS(s)
10. Match the following equation by method
f)
+H2C2O4(aq) HCl(aq) + CaC2O4(s)
redox, then indicate the sum of
g) Mg(OH)2(s)+HNO3(aq) + coefficients of the reactants.

h)BaCO3(s)+ BaCl2(aq)+ + P4+ KClO3 KCl + P2O5

11. After having carried out the balancing

8. Given the following chemical equation of
from the REDOX reaction, indicate the
oxidation-reduction
coefficients that the substances have in
Cu(s) + AgNO3(ac) →
the chemical equation.
Cu(NO3)2+ Ag(s)
HNO3+ Ag Silver nitrate3+ NO + H2O
It can be deduced from her that copper

It is oxidized because it gains 2 electrons. [Link] the following equation by

B) It is reduced because it loses 2 electrons. REDOX

C) It is the reducing agent because it gets reduced.
Cl2+ KOH + KCl + H2O
D) It is the oxidizing agent because it is reduced. KClO3
It oxidizes because it loses 2 electrons.

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Stoichiometry
A. DEFINITION
STOICHIOMETRY is the part of chemistry that deals with quantitative relationships.
among the substances that are involved in chemical reactions.

ATOMIC MASS
The atomic mass (also known as atomic weight) is the mass of an atom in units of
atomic mass unit (amu). One atomic mass unit is defined as the mass exactly equal to the
twelfth part of the mass of the most abundant isotope of the carbon atom (12 C).
In chemistry, only the weight is of interest.
average atomic of the atoms that reflects the
relative abundance of the different isotopes. By
example, in the case of carbon, a natural sample
random sample contains 98.892% of 12 C 1.108%
of 13 C. The average experimental mass is called weight
relative atomic, or simply atomic weight.

ATOMIC GRAM AND AVOGADRO'S NUMBER

The atomic gram of an element is the amount of grams of that element numerically equal to
its atomic weight. It is represented as At-g
One atom-gram of any element contains 6.023 x 1023atoms of that element.
Currently, an equivalent term to at-gr is the mole, which is the basic unit of
amount of substance in the international system, SI.
The number 6.023 x 1023which represents the number of units in a mole of substance,
it is called Avogadro's number, and it is designated by the symbol N.

B. Ponderal Laws

a) Law of conservation of mass - Lavoisier

In every chemical reaction, the sum of the masses of the reactants is equal to the sum of the products.

masses of the products; this is the mass not created nor destroyed, only transformed
CaO + H2The→ Ca(OH)2
56 g + 18g = 74 g

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b) Law of definite proportions – Proust

When two substances combine to form a third, the ratio of their masses is fixed and
invariable
2H2 + O2→ 2H2O
4g 32g 36g
1 8 9
c) Law of multiple proportions – Dalton
The weights of one element that combine with another element to form different
compounds vary according to a simple relationship of whole numbers

d) Law of reciprocal proportions - Wenzel and Richter

When two different substances combine separately with a fixed mass of one.
third substance, then it is fulfilled that the relative masses of those are the same as
they combine with each other, or they are multiples or submultiples of these.

C. VOLUMETRIC LAW

a) Gay-Lussac's Law
They only apply to substances (gaseous) under the same conditions of pressure and
temperature.
In gas reactions, the molar coefficients also indicate the coefficients.
volumetric.

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b) Law of constant and defined volumes.

There is a constant and defined relationship between the volumes of the gases that react.
and produced, any excess stops combining.

Example:

D. LIMITING REAGENT AND EXCESS

Limiting and Excess Reagent.

Frequently in chemical reactions, the reactants are not present in the
exact stoichiometric quantities according to the proportions indicated in the balanced equation.
The reactant that is consumed first in the reaction is called the limiting reactant and will depend on
this is the amount of product that will form, since when this reactant runs out, it will not be able to form

more product. The reactants that are present in greater quantity than required for
Reactants that react with the limiting reagent are called excess reactants.
EXAMPLE
In the following reaction, what is the limiting reagent if we start with 2.80g of Al and 4.25g of
Cl2?
Al + Cl2 Aluminum chloride3
We resolve:
Balancing the equation:
2Al + 3 Cl2 2 AlCl3
Data problem: 2.8g 4.25g
Given equation: 2(27) = 54g 6(35.5) = 213g
Equation/Problem: 19.29 50.11
The lower value is the excess reagent and the higher value is the limiting reagent

E. PERFORMANCE AND PURITIES

Performance (efficiency)
The term yield indicates the amount of product obtained in a reaction.

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Example
CCl was prepared4reacting 100 g of CS2with 100 g of Cl2Calculate the yield

percentage, if 65 g of CCl was obtained4

Pesos atómicos: C = 12; S = 32; Cl = 35,5

CS2+ 3Cl2 CCl4+ S2+ Cl2
Solution:
Real amount obtained = 65 g CCl4
We determine the limiting reagent:

CS2+ 3Cl2 CCl4+ S2+ Cl2

D. problem: 100 g 100g

D. Equation: 76 g 213 g
D. Ec/D.P 0.76 2.13
Rx. Exc Rx. Limit

We calculate the theoretical amount:

CS2+ 3Cl2 CCl4+ S2+ Cl2
D. problem: 100 g Cl2 x g CCl4
D. Equation: 213 g Cl2 154 g CCl4 X g CS2 = 72.3 g CCl4

.
% = * 100
.

65
% = ∗ 100 = 89.9%
72.3
Purity
Indicate in percentage form the actual amount of substance that a sample contains that participates.
in a chemical reaction.

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Example
What mass of carbon dioxide will be obtained from the heating of 400 g of calcium carbonate?
with 80% purity?
CaCO3 CaO + CO2
We take 80% of 400 = 320 g
Later:
100 g CaCO3 44 g of CO2

320 g CaCO3 Xg CO2

Then it produces: 140.8 g
CO2

F. NORMAL CONDITIONS
The normalized conditions of pressure and temperature, commonly referred to as conditions
normal or standard conditions, are a set of standardized pressure conditions.
atmosphere and temperature for the experimental measurements in the laboratory that are established
to allow comparisons between different sets of measured data.
For the calculation with gases, consider a temperature of 25°C (298 K) and a pressure of 1 atm.
(760 mmHg), it is also established that one mole of gas occupies a volume of 22.4 liters.

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SELF-EVALUATION 08
It is 50 grams of aluminum that has If 101g of potassium nitrate has produced
10% impurities with sufficient quantity 5.6 L of oxygen What percentage of
of sulfuric acid What weight of sulfate of Has the nitrate been consumed? Atomic Masses:
aluminum is obtained if the percentage of K = 39; N = 14; O = 16
the performance was 70% a) 10 b) 30 c) 50 d) 70 e) 90
199.5 283.2 c) 305.89 8. How many moles of ammonium chloride are there?
d) 919.5 832.2 obtained from one mole of HCl with
2. How many grams are needed of a sufficient ammonia? Consider the reaction:
impure sample of carbide that contains the HCl + NH3 NH4Cl
80% of CaC2to produce 224 liters of a) 2 b) 3 c) 4 d) 5 e) 1
C2H2a C.N.? according to the following reaction: 9. In the chemical reaction, calculate the grams
CaC2(s) + H2O → Ca(OH)2(s) + C2H2(g) manganese sulfide that can be obtained

a) 400 b) 600 c) 800 d) 1000 e) 1200 with 68 g of hydrogen sulfide.

3. Determine the amount of pyrolusite mineral a)137.3 b)136 c)88.4 d)285 e)745.6

of MnO2that contains 70% MnO2for 10. According to the following reaction, determine the

obtain 25 grams of chlorine using HCl grams of ferric hydroxide needed to

concentrated. produce 600 g of iron sulfate.

4. According to the following reaction: Fe(OH)3+ H2SO4 Fe2(SO4)3+ H2O

Manganese(IV) oxide2+ HCl → Cl2+ MnCl2+ 2H2O a)321 b)624 c)123 d)213 e)567
a) 43,9 b) 52,9 c) 99,5 d) 55,8 e) 20,33 11. The combustion of propane occurs

5. How many liters of CO at C.N. are released? through the following chemical reaction,

when it combusts incompletely 75 determine the moles of carbon dioxide

grams of C2H6with 128 grams of for every 10 moles of propane, consider

an 80% conversion.
oxygen? a) 72 b) 75 c) 128 d) 64 e) 36
C3H8+ O2 CO2+ H2O
6. Calculate the amount of quicklime that can
a)15 b) 24 c)12 d)4 5/3
Prepare by heating 200 g of limestone.
12. The following reaction represents the method
which contains 95% of CaCO3pure.
advertisement for the obtainment of nitric oxide.
a) 106,4 g b) 208,6 g c) 250 g
How many liters of ammonia will be needed?
d) 260 g 290 g
to produce 400 liters of NO?
7. In the following reaction under conditions
NH3+ O2 H2O + NO
normal
KNO3 KNO2+ O2

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13. If 2 g of H are mixed2and 8 g of O2for potassium? The efficiency of the reaction is

produce H2Oh, how many grams and of what 50%. Consider the reaction:
Is there excess substance? KClO3KCl + O2

H2+ O2 H2O a) 372,5 g b) 74,5 g c) 110 g d) 50,5 g

0.2 g of H2 b) 1 g of H2 82.7 g
0.5 g of H2 0.25 g of H2
0.1 g of H2
17.
Determine the amount of mineral that
14.
Determine the amount of moles of water that contains 70% MnO2, to obtain 25 g of
it forms when reacting two moles of C3H8 chlorine using concentrated HCl, according to:
(propane) and 12 moles of O2. MnO2+ HCl → Cl2+ MnCl2+ H2O
C3H8 + O2 CO2 + H2O
8 b) 6 c) 3 d) 5
N.A.
18. How many moles of anhydride (CO2) are there
15.
A silver wire that weighs 12.5g is will form from 600g of a mineral that
dissolved in nitric acid. What weight of contains 50% CaCO3 if the efficiency of
silver nitrate was formed, being the Is the reaction 80%?
reaction yield of 80%? Calcium carbonate3CaO + CO2
Ag + 2 HNO3Silver nitrate3+NO2+H2O 2.4 b) 1,2 c) 3
d) 3.6 1.8
20.42 31.62 c) 40,17 d) 15,72
e) 18,20
16.
What amount of potassium chloride is
you can obtain from 1225g of chlorate
of

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SOLUTIONS
A. DEFINITION
Solutions are homogeneous mixtures of two or more pure substances in proportions.
variables, in which each analyzed portion presents the same characteristic, since the solutes
are evenly dispersed in the solvent. The components of a solution cannot be
to visualize because solutes acquire the size of atoms, molecules, or ions. By
for example, seawater that contains a large number of solutes (O2, N2, NaCl, CaCl, etc.) and a
solvent (H2O).
In general, every chemical solution is characterized by:
Solute and solvent cannot be separated by physical methods such as decantation, filtration.
the sieving, since its particles have formed new chemical bonds.
They possess a solute and a solvent (at least) in some detectable proportion.
At first glance, its constituent elements cannot be distinguished.
Solute and solvent can only be separated by methods such as distillation.
crystallization or chromatography.

Components of a solution:
A) Solute. It is the substance that dissolves and is always present in lesser proportion, whether
in mass or volume. In a solution, there can be several solutes. To the nature of the solute, it
The color, smell, taste, and electrical conductivity of solutions are due to the solute.
name the solution.

B) Solvent (solvent). It is the substance that dissolves or disperses the solute and generally
find in greater proportion. There are "polar" solvents: water, ethyl alcohol, and ammonia.
Non-polar solvents: benzene (C 6H6carbon tetrachloride (CCl44), ether (C2H5-O-
C2H5). In liquid solutions, H2O is considered the 'universal solvent' due to its 'high
polarity. The solvent gives the physical appearance of the solution.

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B. TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
1. According to their chemical properties:
a. Acids.- They release Hydrogen ions H+. E.g. H2SO4in H2O
b.
Bases (alkaline).- They release hydroxide ions (OH) +. For example, NaOH in H2O
c.
Neutrals.- H + = OH + or do not release ions.
d.
Oxidants.- They easily gain electrons during REDOX processes.
e.
Reducing agents - They easily lose electrons in REDOX processes.
2. According to your physical condition

When the physical state of the solute and solvent is different, the solvent retains its state.
physical, as the solute dissolves in it and the solution has the physical state of the solvent. The
The most common solutions are aqueous, that is, the solvent is water.

The state of solute and solvent can be any: solid, liquid, or gas.

3. According to the amount of solute dissolved

They are those in which there is very little solute dissolved,
solvent can continue to admit more solute. An example is the amount
Dissolved:
of minerals in the table water: it has a very low amount that us
allows them to be assimilated correctly.
Those are the ones in which there is a considerable amount of dissolved solute, but the
solvent can still accommodate more solute. An example could
Concentrated:
to be the seawater: it contains a large amount of dissolved salt, but
It would still be possible to dissolve more salt.
These are the ones in which no more solute can be admitted, for
the solvent can no longer dissolve it. If the temperature increases, the
Saturated:the ability to admit more solute increases. A saturated solution is
that one in the
that the maximum amount of grams of solute has dissolved that the
solvent can accommodate.
They are those in which more solute has been added than can be
Oversaturated: dissolved in the solvent, for this reason, it is observed that a part of the
solution

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go to the bottom of the container. The capacity to dissolve the solute in excess

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it increases with temperature: if we heat the solution, it is possible

dissolve all the solute.

C. CONCENTRATION UNITS
Physical units
Mass percentage

% = ∗
%masa = porcentaje en masa
msto = masa del soluto msol = msto + mste
msol = mass of the solution

Volume percentage

% = ∗

%volumen = porcentaje en volumen

Vsto = mass of the solute Vsol = Vsto + Vste
Vsol = mass of the solution

2. Chemical units
a) Molarity (M)
It is expressed as the number of moles per liter of solution.
n
M= ó M=
Vsun ∗

molarity mI ammass of the solute n : número de moles PM: peso

molecular V: volume of solution in liters (L)

Auxiliary equation of the =

molarity

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1
0

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% : percentage by mass or volume

: densidad ( g/ml)

b) Normality (N)
It is expressed as the number of gram equivalents per liter of solution.

N= # Eq  g(sto)
V(sun)
General equation of normality:
∗
= ∗
molarity WSTOmass of the solute
molecular weight solution in liters
θ factor according to:
ácido: número de hidrógenos
base: number of OH
salt: net weight of the metal
element: oxidation state

Relationship between molarity and normality

N=M*

D. DISSOLUTIONS
It is a physical process by which more solvent is added to a solution, thereby decreasing the
initial concentration.
If we consider an initial volume (V1) of a solution with initial concentration (C1) to which it
we add more solvent, a final volume is achieved (V2) with a final concentration (C2),
we have:C1* V1= C2* V2
If two solutions of the same solute are mixed, which are in proportions that can
being variable, thus obtaining a solution of intermediate concentration, we must apply the
next equation:
V1*C1+ V2*C2= V3*C3
Being V1, V2the initial volumes of the solutions to join and C1, C2the concentrations of
The initial solutions, regarding the concentrations, can be normality,
molarity, mass or volume percentage

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SELF-EVALUATION 09
1. Find the molarity of a solution of 2 8. How many liters of water should be added to
liters that contain 20 moles of acid a 2M HCl solution with a volume of 1.2 L,
sulfuric. to lower its concentration to 0.75 M?
4M b)6M c)8M a)1 L b)2 L c)3 L d) 4 L 5 L
d)10M e)12M 0.5 L of 1.5 M HCl is mixed with 0.75 L
2. Find the normality of a solution of of HCl 2M, it is desired to know the

5000mL containing 15 moles of resulting concentration of the mixture.

calcium hydroxide. a)1,2 M b)1,4 M c)1,6 M d)1,8 M e)2 M
a)6N b) 8N c)10N 10. Find the molarity of 800 ml of solution
d) 12N e) 14N of calcium hydroxide if 14.8 g is dissolved
3. An amount of 5 liters of solution of the solution.

contains 189 grams of nitric acid. Find 0.25 M 0.5 M 0.125 M

the molarity of the solution. d) 0,3 M e) 0,65 M
a)0,5M. b)0,6M. c)0,71M. 11. What mass of calcium sulfate is this?
d) 0.8M. e) 0.9M. dissolved in 600 ml of 0.5 M solution?
4. How many milliliters of acid solution a)36,8g b)19,5g c)40,8 g d)78,1 g e130 g
Nitric 0.8 molar contains 6.3 grams of 12. determine the molar concentration of a
solution? solution if 745g of KCl are dissolved in
100 ml. b) 120 ml. c)125 ml. water until reaching a volume of 2 liters
d)250 ml. e)500 ml. a)10 M b)5 M c)2 M d) 1,5 M e) 3 M
5. Calculate the volume in ml of KOH 0.498 13. Calculate the moles of 1500 ml of solution
What is required to neutralize 25 ml 0.01 M barium chloride.
of H2SO40.259 N 14. Calculate the normality of 2500ml of

a)9 ml b)11 ml c)13 ml d) 15 ml e) 17 ml solution of H2SO4 that contains 196 g of

6. Determine the normality of a solution solvent dissolved in water.

of Hypochlorous acid30.8M. a)1,6 N b)2,4 N c)3,8 N d) 4,5 N e) 5,7 N

a)0.6N b)0.7N c)0.8N d) 0.9N e) 1N 15. What volume of water should be used?

7. How many grams of sodium chloride are to prepare a 6 N HNO3 solution at

they need to prepare 4 liters of solution starting from 12 ml of HNO3 16 N?

1.5 M? a)20 ml. b)15 ml. c)40 ml. d)35 ml. e)85 ml.
a)234g b)351g c)421 g d) 585 g e) 702 g

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ACIDS AND BASES

A. DEFINITION
The first time something was said about acids and bases was in the late 27th century, and it was defined
to acids as substances that change the smell of natural colorants and with bases they
Anulan their properties. Lavoisier defined acids as binary compounds with oxygen.
I considered this to be the cause of the acidic properties (this is false).
In the first decade of the 19th century, Humphry Davy demonstrated that HCl(g) is an acid, with which

which discarded Lavoisier's theory about the mandatory presence of oxygen in acids. In
1816 finally demonstrated that hydrogen is responsible for acidic properties.
In everyday life, we encounter acids and bases such as:
Ácido: limón, naranja, vinagre, refrescos, cerveza, gaseosa, leche.
Base: blood, egg white, milk of magnesia.

B. CHARACTERISTICS OF ACIDS AND BASES.

ACIDS BASIS
Sour flavor. Bitter taste (caustic).
Its aqueous solutions. They are oily to the touch (like the
They are conductors of electricity. soap).
They neutralize the bases. They neutralize the acids to form
They react with metals to sales and water.
form salt + H2. They change the indicator color to blue.
They change the paper indicator to red. litmus paper.
iridescent They are ionic substances.

C. ACID-BASE THEORIES
a) Svante Arrhenius Theory (1884)
Acids: These are substances that release H ions in aqueous solution.+
Bases: In aqueous solution, they release (OH)-

Example:
HCl(ac)H+ + Cl-

H2SO4(ac)→ 2 H+ + SO-2

Sodium Hydroxide(ac) (OH)- +

Sodium Potassium Hydroxide(ac) (OH)-

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+ K+
Iron(II) hydroxide3(ac)→ 3(OH)- + Fe+3

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Ca(OH)2(ac)→ 2 (OH)- + Ca+

b) Theory of Johannes Brönsted and Thomas Lowry
Acids: They donate protons

Bases: Accept protons

There are substances that behave as acids in one reaction and as bases in others.
They are known as amphoteric. Cations are acids. Anions are bases.

D. HYDROGEN POTENTIAL
It was proposed by Sörensen with the aim of avoiding negative exponents to express the
hydrogen ion concentration. The acidity and alkalinity of an aqueous solution is due to
which contains hydrogen ions H+, OH ions, therefore it is considered an acid or basic solution.
The higher the concentration of hydrogen ions, the more pronounced the acidity. The greater the
The concentration of hydroxides enhances alkalinity or basicity. A solution is neutral when it does not
is neither acidic nor basic, this phenomenon occurs in chemically pure water. The acidity scale and
alkalinity is as follows:

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It applies only to diluted solutions [H+] < 1 M

pH = -log [H+]
We can also define the (OH)- index in a similar way:
pOH = -log [OH-]
We will work at 25ºC where it is fulfilled:
pH + pOH = 14
Demonstration: for water it holds:

Finally we have:
pH = - log [H]+] → pH = -log (10-7pH = - (-7) = 7

pOH = -log [OH-] pOH = -log (10-7) → pOH = 7

pH + pOH = 14
E. ACID-BASE INDICATORS
Since ancient times, different organic substances have been known that have the
property of changing its color, depending on the acidic or basic characteristics of the
substances to which they are added. Currently, these substances, and many others, that have been
introduced in the usual use of chemical laboratories, they are used for the purpose of
determine the value of the pH of the solutions, as well as the endpoint of the
Acid-base valuation. These substances are called acid-base indicators.
Each of the indicators has a turning interval that characterizes it, that is, an environment
to a greater or lesser extent, reduced pH units. Within that interval is where
produce the color change, or shift. An indicator is more useful the smaller it is.
in its turning interval, thus making the color change more clear and simple.
The following table shows some acid-base indicators, along with their data.
turning intervals and the color they have when the pH is below or above that interval.

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SELF-EVALUATION 10
What does Lewis's theory explain that could not be explained by Arrhenius's and the other?
Bronsted - Lowry?
2. According to Arrhenius, what is the difference between an acid and a base?
3. According to Bronsted - Lowry, what is the difference between an acid and a base?

4. Justify why the ion HCO3–acts as an acid towards NaOH and as a base towards HCl.
5. Determine the pH and pOH of a 0.2 M solution of NH.3knowing
6. Coffee is the drink obtained from the roasted and ground beans of the fruits of
the coffee plant; it is highly stimulating due to its caffeine content. A cup of coffee
It has a concentration of ions [H+] = 3.2*10–8 To determine its pH.
Human consumption of milk from animal origin began about eleven thousand years ago with the
Domestication of livestock. The first animal to be domesticated was the cow and then the goat.
In the laboratory, we analyzed a glass of milk, which showed a concentration of
[OH–] = 1*10-8M. determine the pH of the milk.
8. Complete the following table
Solution [H+] [OH-] pH pOH
Stomach acid 0.032
Lemon juice 2.51*10-12
vinegar 1.99 times 10 -3

wine 10.5
Soda 4.20
Acid rain 8.4
Milk 3.98*10-8
Blood 7.4
Sodium bicarbonate 4.8
Toilet soap 1.58 times 10-10
Ammonia cleaner 12.1
Unclogs pipes 0.158
9. What is the concentration of hydronium ions in a solution with a pH of 4?
10. What is the pH of a KOH solution whose hydroxide ion concentration is 1.0x10?-4M?
11. What is the pH of a solution whose hydronium ion concentration is 10?-3M?
12. What is the pH of a solution whose hydronium ion concentration is 10?-10M?
13. Calculate the pH of an aqueous solution of HCl with a concentration of 5x10.-9M.

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ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
A. INTRODUCTION TO ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
It is a branch of chemistry that deals with the study of carbon and its compounds, both of
natural and artificial origin, as well as its internal structure, characteristics, properties
and the transformations they undergo. Organic compounds are of vital importance
for man due to its various applications in medicine, agriculture, textile industry,
plastic industry, etc.
In the composition of organic compounds, carbon is always present bound to
hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, which are called "Organogens" (C, H, O, N) There are
other less frequent elements in organic compounds, such as: S, P, Cl, Br, I, K, Na,
Mg, Fe, which are called secondary.
It is important to highlight that some compounds containing carbon are of mineral origin.
(inorganic), such is the case with CO, CO2, KNC, NaHCO3,……., that is, they are not organic.
The Swedish chemist Jons Jacob Berzelius (1807) proposed to name organic substances.
obtained from living organisms and the science that studies them is "ORGANIC CHEMISTRY".
According to Berzelius, all organic compounds could only be obtained from animals and plants, already...
that possessed a 'Vital Force' and not by artificial methods, limiting this way the
advance of organic chemistry.
In 1828, the German chemist F. Wohler, a student of Berzelius, synthesized for the first time a
organic compound (Urea) from an inorganic compound (Ammonium cyanate), with which
the idealist doctrine on the 'Vital Force' suffered complete defeat, gradually losing
validity and ushered in the era of modern organic chemistry.

Currently, the majority of organic compounds are artificial and every day more are being created.
synthesized in a larger number.
General Characteristics of Organic Compounds
Most organic compounds feature covalent bonds.
Most do not dissolve in water, but they are very soluble in non-polar solvents like the
benzene, cyclohexane, carbon tetrachloride, etc.
They decompose relatively easily when heated, in some cases they carbonize.

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4. They are insulators (do not conduct electricity).

5. It is common for different compounds to have the same molecular formula, which is why they
They say they are 'Isomers.'
Most organic substances are used as fuel.

B. THE CARBON ATOM

a) Classification
Natural Carbon
1. Crystalline Carbon: They are simple substances and exist in two crystalline forms.
referred to as allotropes.
Graphite: It is a black, soft, slippery solid with a metallic luster,
conductor of electricity, whose density is 2.25 g/cm3.
It is used as a lubricant and in the manufacturing of electrodes, its
softness and conductivity are related to their structure
internal layers that have a hexagonal arrangement of atoms
of carbon.
Diamond: It is a transparent solid, a poor conductor of
the electricity and of greater density than graphite (D =
3.51 g/cm3). It is the hardest natural substance.
for what is used to cut glass, polishing of
tools. The hardness of diamond is attributed to its
internal structure which is tetrahedral and how
the result of the covalent bond creates the structure
it is very rigid.

2. Amorphous Natural Carbon: It is produced by the decomposition of plants by

hundreds and thousands of years, a process also called petrification.
Peat < Lignite < Coal < Anthracite
Increase the seniority
Increase the % of carbon
Increases the heat released in its combustion

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Artificial Carbon
It is the result of chemical changes at the domestic and industrial level of the substances that
contain carbon, are characterized by being amorphous in internal structure; that is, they
atoms adopt an irregular arrangement.
a) Charcoal: It is obtained when wood is heated to high temperatures in
absence of air.
Animal Charcoal: It is obtained by dry distillation of animal bones.
c) Smoke Black: Also known as soot, it is produced by combustion.
incomplete (limited amount of oxygen) of hydrocarbons. It is used in the industry of
the tires.
d) Coke: It is obtained by dry distillation of coal. It is a good reducing agent because of
which is used in certain metallurgical operations.
Activated Carbon: It is a powdered form of mineral carbon that has an area
superficial very porous so it is used as a molecule absorber. It is employed
in filters to absorb impurities that give color or bad taste to water.

b) Properties of the carbon atom

[Link]: The carbon atom binds with the organogenic elements (C, H, O,
N) by sharing electrons, forming covalent bonds. Example:
Ethanol Each carbon atom has 4 covalent bonds

2. Tetravalency: The carbon atom, having 4 valence electrons, can bond.

forming single, double, and triple bonds, thus completing their electronic octet.

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3. Autosaturation: It is the ability of the carbon atom to bond with itself.

the same forming carbon chains, short, medium, long as in the case of the
polymers. This property explains why organic compounds are the most
abundant, regarding the inorganic. Example:

Saturated Linear Chain

C C C C C (Simple Links)

Unsaturated Linear Chain

C C C C C (Double and/or triple link)

C
Branched chain
C C C C C Saturated
C
C C
C
C C
C
c) Types of carbon

d) Types of formula
Global formula
It is a quite basic type of formula that expresses the types of atoms present in a
covalent compound and the amount of each one. Use a linear sequence of symbols.

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of chemical elements and numbers (like subscripts). For example, the formula
the molecular formula of glucose is C6H12O6six carbon atoms, twelve hydrogen and six of
oxygen

Semi-developed formula
Similar to the molecular formula, it is a type of formula that expresses the atoms that
they integrate the compound and also express the chemical bonds (lines) and their type
(single, double, triple) between each atom of the compound. In this formula it does not
they represent the carbon-hydrogen bonds. This is useful for identifying the groups
radicals that compose it, as well as its chemical structure. For example, the formula
semideveloped glucose is,
CH2OH – CHOH – CHOH – CHOH – CHOH – CHO.

Developed formula
The developed formula is the next step in complexity of the semi-developed.
This representation indicates the bond and the location of each atom in the compound.
within their respective molecules, on a Cartesian plane, representing the
totality of the structure of the compound. For example, the expanded formula of the
glucose is as follows:

Topological formula
The topological formula is the representation of organic molecules in the form of
zigzag, considering at each point the start and connection to a carbon atom with its
respective accompanying hydrogens.

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e) Series
Homologous series
A homologous series is made up of a group of compounds with the same group.
functional and such that each term differs from the previous and the subsequent one in that it has a
group —CH2more and less, respectively.
With these concepts, one can introduce the classification of organic compounds as
derivatives of the homologous series of unbranched chain saturated hydrocarbons (or
Paraffins), by substituting a hydrogen atom with the corresponding functional group.

Isologous series
An isologous series defines a finite group of organic compounds that have the same
organic function, equal number of carbons in their chains, but they differ by the
number of H2 groups it has. The molecular masses of the isologous compounds barely
of difference between them. Example
Etano: H3C - CH3
↓ - H2
Ethene: H2C = CH2
↓ - H2
Ethyne: HC ≡ CH

C. HYDROCARBONS
a) Saturated hydrocarbons: Alkanes
They are the simplest binary compounds of carbon and hydrogen. They are called alkanes or
Paraffins. Alkanes are acyclic hydrocarbons that contain only single bonds.
between carbon and carbon.
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:

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At room temperature, the first four alkanes are gaseous; those with 5 to 16
carbon atoms are liquids and solids those that have 17 or more atoms of
carbon in its molecule.
Alkanes are colorless and have a characteristic odor. Their density increases as they
increase the number of carbon atoms; the same happens with the melting point and
boiling.
They are used as fuels, when burned they produce CO2 and H2O, releasing
large amount of energy.
Alkanes react with halogens in the presence of light, forming the halide of
I rent and halogenated derivatives.

CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Reactivity:
Alkanes have low reactivity due to their relatively difficult sigma bonds.
to break. They can react in the gaseous phase and at high pressures, while in the liquid phase and at
normal pressures are relatively inert. Just like when reacting with substances
ionic and polar.
COMBUSTION
As a result, it reacts with oxygen. During this, it produces anhydride.
carbonic and water.
ISOMERIZATION and REFORMING:
Process in which the alkanes of a linear chain are heated in the presence of a
platinum catalyst.
In isomerization, alkanes are converted into their branched chain isomers.
In the reforming process, alkanes are converted into their cyclic forms or into hydrocarbons.
aromatic.
Hydrocarbons are named based on a system of prefixes and suffixes that denote
in the first case the number of carbons and in the second case the type of bond
involved chemist.

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IUPAC NOMENCLATURE FOR ALKANES

Prefix # C Prefix # C Prefix # C Prefix # C

Met 1 hex 6 undec 11 hexadec 16
and 2 hept 7 dodec 12 heptadec 17
prop 3 oct 8 thirteen 13 octadec 18
but 4 no 9 tetradec 14 nineteen 19
pent 5 dec 10 pentadec 15 eicos 20

Choose the main chain, which is the longest continuous chain of carbon atoms and
the most branched.
The main or root chain is the one that gives the basic name of the alkane.
In the root chain, carbon No. 1 is the closest end to a branching or
substituent of a hydrogen.
The names of the alkyl groups attached to the main chain are placed before the
name of each basic chain. These groups should be named in alphabetical order. If
if a substituent is repeated, the prefixes di, tri, tetra, etc. are used; then the root is placed
that must indicate the number of C and the suffix 'ano'.
If multiple different alkyl groups are attached to the main chain, name them in order.
alphabetical.

b) Unsaturated hydrocarbons: alkenes and alkynes

Alkenes
Alkenes are hydrocarbons that have the general formula CnH2n and contain a double bond.
carbon-carbon bond. These compounds are also called olefins. The most common alkene is
Simple, ethylene has the condensed formula CH.2=CH2It is a gas with a sweet smell.
obtained from the refining of oil and is an important raw material in the industry
Chemistry. Properties of alkenes
Propiedades físicas
Under normal conditions, they are gaseous from C2 to C4, liquid from C5 to C17 and the
remaining solids.
They are insoluble in water; but soluble in nonpolar liquids (benzene, ether, chloroform).
More active than alkanes due to the presence of pi (π) bonds.

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The boiling points of unbranched alkenes increase as the

length of the chain. For isomers, the one with the most branched chain will have
a lower boiling point.
Chemical properties
They are more reactive than alkanes because they have a pi bond. These hydrocarbons
and addition reactions, due to the breaking of the pi bond. Alkenes are more reactive.
than alkynes.
Halogenation.- It is the reaction with halogens (Cl2; Br2) using as a solvent the
carbon tetrachloride (CCl4). Alkyl halides are obtained.
CH2This seems to be an abbreviation→ CHNo2Chloroform
or a code. 2Cl 2+ Cl2
translation needed.

Hydrogenation or catalytic reduction

It consists of the reaction of the unsaturated hydrocarbon with hydrogen in the presence of a
catalyst that is generally a transition metal (Pt, Ni, Pd, Fe, etc.) The product
The obtained principal depends on the catalyst used. E.g.
1.-CH2= CH – CH + H2 → CH3CH2CH3
propene Propane

Alkynes
Alkynes are unsaturated hydrocarbons that contain a triple carbon-carbon bond.
reason why they respond to the general formula Cn H2n-2. They are also called
Acetylenic hydrocarbons because they derive from the simplest alkyne called acetylene.
(etino).

Properties of alkynes
Physical properties
Alkynes are insoluble in water and less dense than it.
Soluble in common organic compounds of low polarity such as: Benzene, Ether,
Carbon Tetrachloride.
Their melting and boiling points are higher compared to alkanes.
alkynes, because the triple bond gives it a greater attraction force between the atoms.
Density, as well as boiling and melting points, increase with an increase in
molecular weight.

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Nomenclature of alkenes and alkynes

The main chain is the longest chain that contains both carbons of the double bond.
link or triple bond. The ending "ane" of the corresponding alkane is changed to
“eno” for the alkene and “ino” for the alkyne, the presence of the double or
triple bond. For example, let's look at the structure:
2. Number the atoms in the chain, starting from the end closest to the double bond.
triple bond assigning numbers to the carbons in the chain. If the double or triple bond
it is equidistant from both ends, start from the end closest to the first
branching point. This rule ensures that the carbons of the double or triple bond
receive the lowest possible numbers
3. Arrange the radicals in alphabetical order and insert numerical indices and prefixes as follows.
as done previously in alkanes. To indicate the position of the double or triple bond
link in the chain, an index is written just before the parent name of the compound;
for example (3-pentene, 5-hexine). This index must be the smaller of the two
corresponding to the carbons of the double bond or triple bond.
4. If there is more than one double or triple bond present, indicate the position of each one and use
the suffixes di, tri, tetra, etc. followed by the respective ending.
5. Finally, the name of the compound is written by first indicating the radicals, followed by the
main chain with its respective ending.

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SELF-EVALUATION 11
1. Based on what was studied in the chapter, indicate if it corresponds to: a) alkane, alkene, alkyne or
aromatic hydrocarbon and b) the IUPAC name and/or common name of the compound when known.

2. Develop the molecule for the following compounds

pentane
hex-2-ene
hept-1-yne
d) cyclopentane
e) ethno
isopropanol
penta-1,4-diene
h) butane
oct-3-eno
j) etheno
butadiene-1,3
hexa-1,3,5-triene
4-methylpent-1-ene
3-propylhex-1,4-diene
But-1-en-3-yne
acetylene
6-metlocta-1,4-diino
3-methylpent-1-yne
s)3-propylhepta-1,5-diine

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Oxygenated functions
A. ALCOHOLS FUNCTION
They are ternary compounds that contain the hydroxyl group (OH) bonded to carbon.

a)Nomenclature
Common system
The word alcohol is written, then the suffix according to the number of carbon atoms and the ending
Ilicum
Ex. CH3OH methyl alcohol
CH3CH2OH ethyl alcohol
IUPAC System
The same roots of hydrocarbons are used to indicate the number of carbons and for the
The OH group uses the suffix 'ol' for polyols (di, tri, etc.). For example.
1.- CH3CH2-CHOH- CH3: 2-butanol
2.- CH2= CH – CH (CH3-CH2OH 2-methyl-3-buten-1-ol

b) Types of alcohols
Alcohols are classified into monohydric and polyhydric according to the number of hydroxyl groups present.

in the molecular structure.

Monoles
They have only one hydroxyl functional group (OH), they can be classified as primary,
secondary and tertiary.
Primary alcohol
The hydroxyl group (OH) is attached to a primary carbon.
CH3– CH2–CH21-propanol

Secondary alcohol
When the hydroxyl group (OH) is attached to a secondary carbon.
CH3-CHOH- CH32 - propanol
Tertiary alcohol
The hydroxyl group (OH) is attached to a tertiary carbon.
CH2– CH2–CHOH(CH3) - CH3

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2-methyl-2-butanol

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Polyols
They are compounds that have 2 or more hydroxyl groups, among which we highlight the
diols and triols. In these compounds, each carbon atom can only contain one hydroxyl group.
neither 2 groups OH nor 3 hydroxyls, therefore they do not exist. E.g.
1.- CH2OH– CH2OH : etenodiol
2.- CH2OH– CHOH– CH2OH : 1,2,3-propanetriol or glycerin

c) Physical properties
Physical state
Methanol, ethanol, and 2-propanol are liquids at 20 ºC, the monols with more than 11 atoms.
Carbon is solid.
Solubility
Water and alcohols have similar properties (they are polar) because both
they contain the OH group, which allows them to join through hydrogen bonding,
First alcohols are soluble in water.
As the number of carbon atoms increases, solubility decreases. <PM = > S ; >PM<S.
Polyols are more soluble than monols because they have a greater number of
hydroxyl groups, which can form a greater number of hydrogen bonds.
Boiling point
As the number of carbon increases, the boiling point rises as a consequence of
increase the London dispersion forces.
> PM > Teb; < PM <eb T
Branched alcohols have a lower Tebthan the linear alcohols. Due to the
London forces decrease.
As the number of OH increases, the boiling point rises.

d) Chemical properties
Los alcoholes constituyen una clase muy importante de compuesto orgánico ya que a partir de
we can prepare other compounds such as alkenes, ethers, aldehydes, ketones, acids
carboxylics, etc., this implies that the hydroxyl functional group (-OH) transforms with
ease in any functional group.
1.- Dehydration of an alcohol yields alkenes:
CH3CH2OH CH2=2+ H2O
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2.- Dehydrogenation (they lose H)2) formaldehydes.

CH3 CH2OH CH3CHO + H2
3.-Through combustion, CO is obtained.2+ H2O + heat.
4.- Peroxidation of alcohols
The moderate oxidation of a primary alcohol produces an aldehyde.
The severe oxidation of a primary alcohol directly produces the carboxylic acid.
corresponding, strong oxidizers such as KMnO are used for this.4.
The oxidation of a secondary alcohol produces only a ketone.
NOTE: Tertiary alcohols are not oxidized.

B. ALDEHYDE FUNCTION
They are ternary compounds (C, H, O), resulting from theoretically replacing two hydrogen atoms.
for an oxygen on a primary carbon.
R – CHO : where R can be aliphatic or aromatic.
a) Nomenclature:
In the common system, the name derives from the common name of the carboxylic acid.
corresponding that originate from oxidation.
acetaldehyde → CH3 - COOH
Acetaldehyde Acetic acid
According to IUPAC:

They are referred to as derivatives of alkanes, in which the 'o' is replaced by 'al'.
The longest chain that contains the functional group 'CHO' is chosen.
To indicate the position of the substituents, the chain is numbered starting from that one.
extreme where the group – CHO is located.
If there are 2 groups - CHO, the suffix 'dial' is used. E.g.
H- CHO : methanal CH3 - CHO: ethanol
In unsaturated aldehydes, it is necessary to indicate the position of the double or triple bond.
CH2= CH – CH2– CHO 3 – butanal
CH3– CH2– C = C – CH2-CH2-CHO 4 – heptinal
CHO – (CH2)2CHO butanediol
CH3(CH2)3CH (CH3) – CHO 2-methylhexanal

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b) Physical properties:
Methanal or formaldehyde (HCHO) is gaseous, the others are liquids and starting from C 13 they are
solids.
Low molecular weight aldehydes generally have pungent and unpleasant odors.
Aromatic aldehydes usually have pleasant scents (Benzaldehyde, vanilla)
The aldehydes with lower molecular weight have considerable solubility in water. As the
PM decreases water solubility.
Aldehydes are more polar than ethers, therefore they have a higher boiling point.
but lower than the alcohols of similar molecular mass.

c) Chemical properties:
The carbonyl group of aldehydes is highly reactive and participates in a wide
a variety of important transformations, their most important reactions would be:

Reduction to alcohols:
By contact with hydrogens in the presence of certain catalysts, the double bond
carbon=oxygen from the carbonyl group breaks, and a hydrogen atom couples with one of
the links to form the typical hydroxyl group of alcohols.

Reduction to hydrocarbons:
Aldehydes can be reduced to hydrocarbons by interacting with certain reagents and in
presence of catalysts; In the Wolff-Kishner reduction, acetaldehyde is treated with
hydrazine as reducing agent and sodium ethoxide as catalyst. The result of the
reaction produces a mixture of ethane, water, nitrogen.

C. KETONE FUNCTION
They are ternary compounds formed by C, H, O, and they have in their molecule the functional group of
radical -C = O- (carbonyl group)
Theoretically, they originate from the substitution of 2 hydrogens of a secondary carbon by a
OXYGEN.
Ex. CH3 - CH2 -CH3 → CH3 - CO - CH3
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a) Nomenclature
The longest chain including the carbonyl group is chosen.
To name them, the ending 'o' of the hydrocarbon is changed to 'ONA', 'DIONA',
TRIONA, etc. Indicating the carbon number where the carbonyl group is located.
If there are substituents or multiple bonds, the chain is numbered considering the group.
functional (CO)
Ex. 1.- CH3– CH2– CO – CH3 : 2-butanone
2.- CH3CO - CH2– CH2CO – CH2– CH3 2, 5 - heptanedione
3.- CH3- CH = CH- CH2- CO – CH3: 4-hexen-2-one
4.- CH3– CH2– CO- (CH3) - CH2–CH3 2-methyl-pentanone

b) Properties
Ketones up to C10 are liquid and aromatic in smell, from C11 onwards they are
solid and odorless.
The boiling point is lower than that of the corresponding alcohol and higher than that of the
aldehyde with the same number of carbon atoms.
Acetone is soluble in water, the others are poorly soluble in water.

c) Chemical properties
Ketones, when oxidized, form acids with a lower number of carbon atoms.
CH3-CH2-CO-CH2 + HCl → Propanoic acid + Chloroform

By reduction of a ketone, an alcohol CH3– is obtained.

CO–CH3 + H2 CH3- CHOH→
- CH3
Ketones are much more resistant to oxidation compared to aldehydes.
Environmental conditions: ketones do not oxidize in the presence of oxidizing agents.

D. ETHER FUNCTION
They are ternary compounds formed by C, H, and O. Their general formula is: R - O - R'
They are substances that are still used in medicine as anesthetics, in the industry dimethyl ether.
it is used as a refrigerant.
By observing the formula of each compound, it is noticeable that they contain the oxygen atom ( - O - )
whose name is Oxi.

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Classes of ethers
If R = R' it is a symmetric ether
If R ≠ R' it is an asymmetric ether.
Ethers are compounds of low polarity and are obtained by intermolecular dehydration of
alcohols, in the presence of sulfuric acid at 130 ºC.
R – OH + OH – R → R-O-R + H2O
ALCOHOLS ETER

a) Nomenclature
In the common system, the word ether is noted first and then the common names of the
radicals with the ending .....il or lyrical.
CH3 – O – CH3: dimethyl ether
CH3 – O – C4H9: methyl butyl ether
C2H5 – O – C2H5 : diethyl ether
In the IUPAC system, radicals are named and the word is written between both names.
"NO", ethers are considered as alkoxyalcanes, alkoxyalkenes, or alkoxyarenes.
1.- CH3– O – CH3 metoxymethane
2.- C3H7- O - C2H5 etoxipropane
3.- CH3 – CH – CH2CH2– CH32-ethoxypentane
O – CH2CH3
4.- CH3– O – CH = CH2 Metoxietene

b) Physical properties
They are flammable and volatile.
At 20 ºC, dimethyl ether and ethyl methyl ether are gases, the others are liquids.
Insoluble in water. They are difficult to attack by acids or by alkalis.
Have low T. Eb., lower than alcohols or phenols with the same number of C.
No forman puente de H, son excelentes disolventes, son menos reactivos que los alcoholes.
Its boiling point is much lower than that of the alcohols from which it derives.

c) Chemical properties
Due to unshared electronic pairs, ethers have basic properties.
They have low chemical reactivity

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The only important reaction is with hydrogen halides (HI, HBr, HCl)
E. CARBOXYLIC ACIDS FUNCTION
They are organic compounds that contain the carboxyl functional group (-COOH), attached to a
alkyl or aryl group (except in formic acid where it is attached to a hydrogen).

a) Nomenclature:
To name carboxylic acids, we will use two systems of Nomenclature.

COMMON NOMENCLATURE:
Many aliphatic carboxylic acids have been known for centuries and have names
common terms that refer more to their source of origin than to their chemical structures.

1.1. Unbranched aliphatic carboxylic acids:

They are named as follows:

The first 5 common roots are the same as those used in the common system of
aldehydes.

Examples:

1.2. Branched aliphatic carboxylic acids:

They are named as derivatives of the common names of normal chain acids.

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The position of the substituents is indicated by Greek letters, with the alpha position being
the carbon adjacent to the carboxyl group. That is, the alpha position corresponds to the
position 2 of the IUPAC nomenclature.
The side chains are named according to the rules of alkanes.
Examples:

IUPAC NOMENCLATURE:
[Link] non-branched carboxylic acids:
They are named using the word acid followed by the name of the corresponding alkane, to which
the ending "-o" is replaced by the suffix "-oico".
Examples:

2.2. Unbranched unsaturated carboxylic acids:

They are named with the endings "-enoic" "-inoic". First, the links are mentioned.
multiple and then the carboxyl function.
Examples:

2.3. Dicarboxylic acids:

They are compounds that contain two carboxylic groups, therefore, they are diprotic.

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Dicarboxylic acids are named using the suffix '-dioic'. They are not
indicate the position of the carbons in the carboxyl group since they can only
to be found at the ends of the main carbon chain.
They can be saturated or unsaturated.
Examples:

2.4. Higher fatty acids:

They are those carboxylic acids that are obtained by hydrolysis of fats and oils.
they generally contain more than 11 carbon atoms.
Most fatty acids contain an even number of carbon atoms. They can
saturated or unsaturated generally with carbon-carbon double bonds

2.5. Branched carboxylic acids:

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b) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES:
1. Physical condition:

At 20 °C and 1 atm, the first 9 monocarboxylic acids are liquids and the higher ones
they are solid.
Unsaturated fatty acids are liquids and dicarboxylic acids are solids.
2. Solubility:
Carboxylic acids, when interacting with water, form hydrogen bond connections.
with it through its very polar groups such as the carbonyl and hydroxyl, it is because
They are more soluble in water than alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, etc. of mass
molecular similar.
The first 4 carboxylic acids are miscible in water, as the number increases
carbon, solubility decreases due to the increase in hydrophobic character of the
acid that is given by the hydrocarbon group (- R).
[Link] point:
Carboxylic acids boil at temperatures much higher than those of
alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, ethers, and alkanes of similar molecular weight.
Examples:

The reason is that carboxylic acids bond through hydrogen bonds.

forming very stable dimers (in the liquid state there is a mixture of dimers).
When the molar mass of carboxylic acids increases, it also increases
the boiling point. The reason is that as the number of carbons increases in
The chain, the forces of London are more intense.
When carboxylic acids have branches, their boiling point
decreases as a consequence of the decrease in London forces.
F. ESTER FUNCTION
They are compounds formed by replacing the H of an organic acid with a chain.
hydrocarbonated, R'.

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Esters are among the most widespread natural compounds. Many simple esters
they are pleasant smelling substances responsible for the aromatic scents of fruits and flowers.

For example, methyl butanoate is found in pineapple oil and isopropyl acetate is
a constituent of the banana.
The ester linkage is also found in animal fats and in many molecules of importance.
biological.

a) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Low molecular weight esters, being colorless liquids, volatile, have a fruity smell.
for the first terms of the aliphatic series, they are used as essences in manufacturing
of beverages, soft drinks, candies, etc. The esters of the aromatic series are used in the
perfume manufacturing.
b) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
Acid hydrolysis:
Under heat, they decompose regenerating the alcohol and the corresponding acid. It is used a
excess water to tilt this reaction to the right this time. As mentioned, it is the
reverse of esterification.

Hydrolysis in alkaline medium:

In this case, strong hydroxides are used to attack the ester, thus regenerating the
alcohol. And the salt of the organic acid is formed.

c) USES OF ESTERS
Esters are used in many and varied fields of industry, such as the following:

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Solvents: Low molecular weight esters are liquids and are usually used
as solvents, especially the acetates of methyl, ethyl, and butyl alcohols.
Plasticizers
Artificial aromas: Many low molecular weight esters have odors
characteristics of the fruit: banana, rum, and pineapple. These esters are used in the production of
aromas and synthetic perfumes.
Food Additives: These same low molecular weight esters that have odors
characteristics of fruit are used as food additives, for example, in candies
and other foods that should have a fruity flavor.
Pharmaceutical Products: Products used as frequently as analgesics are
they are made with esters.

Various Polymers
Insect repellents: All the insect repellents that we can find in the
the market contains esters.

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SELF-EVALUATION 12
1. Write the molecule for the following compounds
1) Metanol
2) 1,2,3 – propanetriol
3) 4-penten-2,2,3-triol
4) 3,4-dimethyl-1-phenol
5) 2-methyl-2-propanol
6) Ethanal
Propanedial
8) 3-phenyl-2-propenal
2-butenedial
3-methyl-2-pentenal
11) 5 - methyl heptanone
12) 2, 5, 6 – octanone
t-butyl phenyl ketone
14) 2 - butanone
15) 2, 4 - hexanedione
Ethyl vinyl ether
17) etoxiisobutano
Ethyl phenyl ether
Ethyl 2-propenyl ether
Dipropyl ether
propanoic acid
hexanoic acid
2-hexenoic acid
3-hexenedioic acid
2,3-dimethylpentanoic acid
ethyl butanoate
butyl acetate
phenyl acetate
ethyl formate
vinyl acetate

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHANG, Raymond Química. Mc Graw – Hill Interamericana. Editores. Décima edición. 2010 -
Mexico.
FIGUEROA R. Nilo Química General: inorgánica – orgánica. Editorial VLACABO 1977- Lima.
SALCEDO LOZANO, Alfredo Chemistry Theory and Practice. San Marcos Publishing. Lima.
Institute of Sciences and Humanities. Chemistry I – II. LUMBRERAS Publishing. Third edition.
2008 - Lima.
QUIMICA, Análisis de principios y aplicaciones, tercera edición. Editorial Lumbreras año 2012
CHEMISTRY, principles and applications, Ing Roberto Velasquez Rondon. year 2006
CHEMISTRY, Salvador Timoteo V, San Marcos editions 2010 - Lima.
QUIMICA: Teoria y práctica, editorial San Marcos, Walter Cartolin Rodriguez, año 2018.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY, MC Murry, Pearson Prentice Hall.
GENERAL CHEMISTRY, Timberlake, second edition, Pearson Prentice Hall.
HIPERTEXT 1, Santillana Publishing, year 2010.
CHEMISTRY PROBLEM BANK, Lic. Carlos Jara Benites. JB editions 2021

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