Stalk/Pedicel
Point of attachment.
Thalamus
It is an enlarged, flattened tip of the stalk. Petals and other
parts arise from the thalamus.
Calyx
Outermost whorl of the flower consisting of sepals. The calyx
protects the inner parts of the flower in their bud stage.
Corolla
Second whorl of the flower which is made up of [Link]
flowers in attracting insects to carry out pollination.
Androcium
Third whorl and the male organ of the flower. Consists of
stamens. Each stamen is made of the filament and anther.
Anthers store pollegrains.
Gynoecium
Innermost whorl and the female reproductive organ. Consists
of pistils or carpels. Carpel is made of stigma, style and ovary.
Pollination
Pollination is the transfer of pollens from the anther to the
stigma of the same plant or a different plant of the same
species.
Types of Pollination
Different agents help to bring about cross pollination. They
are insects, wind, water, etc.
Fertilization
The process of fusion of the male gamete with the female
gamete to form a zygote is called fertilization.
Key components and steps of double fertilization in flowering
plants
Syngamy:
The first fertilization event.
o One male gamete fuses with the egg cell to form a diploid
(2n)zygote.
o The zygote develops into the embryo.
Triple Fusion:
The second fertilization event.
o The second male gamete fuses with the two polar nuclei in
the central cell.
o This fusion creates a triploid (3n) primary endosperm
nucleus (PEN).
o The PEN develops into the endosperm, which serves as
nutritive tissue for the developing embryo.
Significance:
o Provides a readily available food supply for the embryo, increasing
the chance of successful growth.
o Prevents the formation of seeds without a developing embryo by
ensuring that the endosperm is only formed when fertilization is
successful.
o Stimulates the growth of the ovary into a fruit and the ovule into a
seed.
o post-fertilization events:
o Shedding of floral parts:
o Sepals, petals, and stamens typically wither and fall off after
fertilization.
- Embryo development:
o The zygote (formed from the fusion of gametes) divides mitotically
to form a multicellular embryo, which grows within the ovule.
- Endosperm formation:
o A nucleus (formed from the fusion of a male gamete and polar
nuclei) divides to form the endosperm, a tissue that provides
nourishment for the developing embryo.
o Seed formation:
o The ovule develops a tough outer layer and matures into a seed,
which contains the embryo and endosperm. The integuments of the
ovule become the seed coat.
- Fruit development:
o The ovary grows and ripens to form a fruit, which encloses the
seed(s). The ovary wall becomes the pericarp (the fruit wall).
Fruit and Seed Formation
After fertilization, the ovary enlarges and forms a fruit.
Scientifically, the fruit is the ripened ovary.
Ovules become the seeds of the fruit.
All parts other than the ovary dry up and fall off.
Tomato, lady’s finger and brinjal are all fruits.
Reproduction in Human Beings
Growth and Development
Growth and development are gradual and irreversible
processes.
Size and complexity of the body increase gradually.
Growth in humans is divided into the following stages:
Puberty
Puberty is the period during which the reproductive system
matures in boys and girls.
In girls, puberty begins at the age of 11 years.
In boys, it begins at the age of 12–14 years.
Puberty continues till the age of 18 years.
Changes Which Occur At the Time of Puberty
Male Reproductive System
Female Reproductive System
Female Reroductive
Male Reproductive System
System
Produces sperm Produces ova
Testes as main organ Ovaries as main organ
Sperms are motile Ova are non-motile
Produces estrogen and
Produces testosterone
progesterone
Fertilisation
The process of fusion of the male gamete with the female gamete is
called fertilisation.
If Fertilisation takes place it occurs in the oviduct.
Implantation
As soon as the zygote is formed, it starts developing.
By the time it reaches the uterus, it is a mass of cells known as an
embryo.
It remains attached to the wall of the uterus throughout its
development.
The period of development of the embryo inside the uterus is
called the gestation period.
In humans, the gestation period is of 9 months, i.e. about 280 days.
The embryo after completing three months of development is
called the foetus.
The placenta is a special tissue which provides food and oxygen to
the foetus.
If There Is No Fertilisation
Reproductive Health
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
Different methods are available in order to prevent pregnancy:
1. Hormonal Method:
Various hormonal preparations come in the form of tablets or pills,
commonly called contraceptive pills.
2. Barrier Methods:
Condoms, diaphragms and spermicidals are used.
Condoms are used by males while diaphragms and spermicidals are used
by females.
3. Intra-uterine Devices (IUDs):
IUDs such as Lippe’s loop and copper – T are fitted in the uterus. They
prevent fertilisation.
4. Surgical Methods:
In females, the fallopian tubes are ligated. This is called tubectomy. In
males, the vas deferntia are ligated. This is called vasectomy.
5. Induced Abortion:
It is also known as Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP).
If a woman becomes pregnant and the couple is not willing to have a
baby, then the option of induced abortion is chosen.
MNEMONICS
1. Types of Asexual Reproduction
Mnemonic: "Fabulous Frogs Regret Boring Vegetables, Soak Spore Soup"
F- Fission
Binary Fission:
Example: Amoeba
Multiple Fission:
Example: Plasmodium
F-Fragmentation
Example: Spirogyra
R-Regeneration
Example: Planaria 5. Accessory Ducts in Females
B-Budding Mnemonic: Our United Villages
Example: Hydra O: Oviduct (Fallopian tube) - Where fertilization typically
V-Vegetative Propagation occurs.
Stem Cutting: U: Uterus - Where the embryo implants and develops
Example: Sugarcane during pregnancy.
Layering: V: Vagina - The canal that connects the external genitalia
Example: Jasmine to the uterus and serves as the birth canal.
Grafting:
Example: Roses
Leaf Buds:
Example: Bryophyllum
S - Spore Formation
Example: Rhizopus
2. Steps involved in Sexual Reproduction in flowering plants
Mnemonic: "Pollination Forms Sweet Fruits, Growing Seeds"
Pollination: Pollen transfers from anther to stigma
Fertilization: Fusion of male and female gametes
Sweet: Seed (forms from ovule, matures in fruit)
Fruits: Flowers shed their parts as fruit forms
Growing: Germination occurs
Seeds: Seed develops into a seedling
3. Parts of Male Reproductive System
Mnemonic: SEVEn UP
S: Seminiferous tubules - Where sperm are produced.
E: Epididymis - Stores and matures sperm.
V: Vas deferens - Transports sperm from the epididymis to the ejaculatory duct.
E: Ejaculatory duct - Delivers sperm to the urethra.
U: Urethra - The duct through which urine and semen are expelled from the body.
P: Penis - The organ that delivers sperm into the female reproductive tract.
4. Accessory Glands in Males
Mnemonic: Saint Peters
S: Seminal vesicle - Produces a significant portion of semen.
P: Prostate gland - Produces a fluid that nourishes and protects sperm.
T: (Absent in this mnemonic, but should be "Cowper's gland" or "Bulbourethral gland") - Produces a
pre-ejaculatory fluid that lubricates the urethra.