Working Memory Model
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Saul McLeod, PhD May 19, 2025
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Working memory is a mental system that temporarily holds and actively uses
information, helping you perform tasks like solving problems, making decisions, or
following instructions.
Think of it like a mental workspace or scratchpad that allows your brain to juggle
and process several pieces of information at once.
Working memory has a limited capacity (around 7 ± 2 items or only a handful of
chunks).
How it differs from short-term memory
Short-term memory keeps information for a brief period, like holding a phone number
before dialing.
Working memory goes beyond simple storage; it actively manipulates and processes
information.
Think of it as a mental workspace or a whiteboard in your mind, where you not only keep
track of information temporarily but also do something with it, like solving a math problem,
following driving directions, or planning what you want to say next in a conversation.
Key Differences:
Activity Level: Short-term memory is primarily passive storage. Working memory
actively engages with the stored information, processing, rearranging, or evaluating
it.
Complexity: Working memory involves multiple components, such as visual
imagery (imagining scenes or routes), verbal rehearsal (repeating information
mentally), and an executive function that directs your attention and coordinates your
actions.
Everyday Use: Short-term memory is used for simple tasks like remembering brief
details momentarily. Working memory supports complex cognitive tasks, such as
decision-making, problem-solving, and learning new information.
In short, while short-term memory temporarily holds information, working memory
actively uses, manipulates, and processes it, making it crucial for everyday thinking,
reasoning, and planning.
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Why is working memory important?
Working memory is important because it’s a mental workspace that helps you hold and
use information while performing everyday tasks.
It allows you to follow instructions, solve problems, learn new skills, and make decisions.
In education, it’s key to reading, writing, and math.
People with stronger working memory often do better academically, as they can easily
manage and apply new information.
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Working memory also supports essential skills such as reasoning, organizing thoughts,
planning, and multitasking, making it vital for navigating daily life and achieving goals.
What are everyday examples of working memory?
Everyday examples of working memory include:
Remembering instructions like following a recipe while cooking.
Doing mental math, such as calculating the total cost of groceries while shopping.
Holding directions in mind while navigating a route.
Keeping track of a conversation, allowing you to listen and respond effectively.
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Taking notes during a meeting or class, as you remember what was just said
while writing it down.
Recalling a phone number long enough to dial it.
These activities rely on working memory because they require you to hold and use
information actively and briefly in your mind.
What strategies improve working memory?
While direct training typically doesn’t boost working memory itself, you can effectively
support your working memory using these practical strategies:
Break tasks down into smaller, manageable steps.
Use memory aids like lists, notes, or reminders.
Create clear routines to automate daily tasks.
Group or “chunk” information into smaller sets.
Practice mental rehearsal by repeating information to yourself.
Reduce distractions by creating quiet, organized workspaces.
Connect new information to things you already know (use existing knowledge).
How does stress impact working memory?
Stress impacts working memory by making it harder to focus and keep track of
information.
When you’re stressed or anxious, your brain uses up mental resources trying to manage
those feelings, leaving fewer resources available for handling the tasks you’re working on.
This makes it difficult to concentrate, hold details in your mind, and effectively manage
complex tasks.
For example, if you’re nervous during an exam or stressed at work, you might struggle to
remember instructions or perform mental calculations, because stress interferes with the
brain’s ability to organize and manipulate information effectively.
Key Parts
The Working Memory Model, proposed by Baddeley and Hitch in 1974, describes short-
term memory as a system with multiple components.
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Central Executive: Acts like a manager, deciding what to focus on, organizing
tasks, and directing information to the right places in your mind. It also deals with
cognitive tasks such as mental arithmetic and problem-solving.
Phonological Loop: Deals with spoken and written words and has two parts: Inner
ear: Briefly holds words or sounds you hear (for about 1–2 seconds). Inner voice:
Repeats words or sounds in your mind, helping you remember them.
Visuospatial Sketchpad: Works like your mind’s eye, handling visual images and
spatial relationships—like picturing a room layout or finding your way around a new
place.
Episodic Buffer: Acts as a mental connector, bringing together information from
different sources (visual, verbal, memories) to help you form complete stories or
experiences, and links this to your long-term memory.
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Fig 1. The Working Memory Model Components (Baddeley and Hitch, 1974)
The Central Executive
The Central Executive is like the brain’s manager or conductor.
It coordinates and controls how you use your working memory, deciding what information
to pay attention to, what to ignore, and what actions to take next.
Think of it as the person directing traffic at a busy intersection—guiding thoughts,
prioritizing tasks, and helping you stay focused.
For example, when you’re cooking dinner while answering the phone and watching your
kids, it’s your central executive that helps you shift attention smoothly between tasks and
stay organized.
If the central executive isn’t working effectively, you might find it hard to concentrate,
become easily distracted, or struggle to juggle multiple tasks at once.
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Everyday examples of the central executive include:
Deciding to ignore your phone when it rings so you can finish an important task.
Multitasking, such as cooking dinner while helping your child with homework.
Prioritizing tasks by choosing to answer urgent emails first and leaving less
important ones for later.
Switching attention from watching TV to listening to someone speaking to you.
Staying focused in noisy environments, like concentrating on work despite
conversations happening around you.
Stopping a conversation to focus completely on driving during heavy traffic.
These examples illustrate how the central executive directs attention, manages priorities,
and helps you juggle multiple activities effectively.
It coordinates and supervises two assistant systems:
It coordinates and supervises two assistant systems: the phonological loop, which stores
sounds and spoken information, and the visuospatial sketchpad, which handles visual
images and spatial information.
The central executive also connects these assistants with long-term memory, the brain’s
larger database of stored knowledge.
One of the central executive’s main jobs is deciding what information to focus on and
directing it to the appropriate assistant system within working memory.
For example, imagine you’re driving a car while having a conversation. Suddenly, a cyclist
appears and wobbles into your path.
The central executive immediately steps in, stopping your conversation and directing your
full attention to driving safely, helping you avoid an accident.
Unlike the two assistant systems, which mainly store information, the central executive
controls attention and decision-making.
It helps you selectively focus on important things while ignoring distractions.
Psychologist Alan Baddeley described the central executive using the metaphor of a
company boss.
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Just as a boss decides which issues need immediate attention and which ones can wait,
the central executive chooses what to prioritize and what to ignore.
It also picks the best strategies for handling problems, but like a busy manager, it can only
handle a few tasks effectively at once.
The central executive gathers and combines information from its assistants – the
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad – as well as retrieving data from the vast
storage of long-term memory.
This integration allows you to respond thoughtfully and flexibly to the challenges of
everyday life
The Phonological Loop
The phonological loop is like your brain’s temporary voice recorder – it holds onto spoken
or heard information for a short period.
Imagine repeating a phone number silently in your head until you dial it, or repeating
directions to yourself to remember them better. That’s your phonological loop at work.
The phonological loop allows you to process language, learn new vocabulary, and follow
spoken instructions.
It’s essential for everyday tasks like remembering someone’s name after being
introduced, repeating items on a grocery list, or mentally rehearsing what you’ll say before
speaking.
The phonological loop is the part of working memory that deals with spoken and written
material.
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It consists of two parts (see Figure 2).
Fig 2 . The phonological loop
1. The inner ear (phonological store): This part briefly holds information in a speech-
based form (i.e., spoken words) for 1-2 seconds.
Spoken words enter the store directly. Written words must first be converted into an
articulatory (spoken) code before they can enter the phonological store.
2. The inner voice (articulatory rehearsal system): This part silently repeats the
sounds or words, helping you remember them longer.
This is how we remember a telephone number we have just heard. As long as we
keep repeating it, we can retain the information in working memory.
The articulatory control process also converts written material into an articulatory
code and transfers it to the phonological store.
The Visuospatial Sketchpad
The visuospatial sketchpad is like a mental drawing board or inner eye in your brain. It
temporarily holds visual information (like pictures, shapes, and colors) and spatial
information (such as locations or movements).
For example, when you imagine rearranging furniture in your room or mentally picture the
route from your home to a friend’s house, you’re using your visuospatial sketchpad.
It helps you visualize objects, remember visual details, and plan movements.
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It has two main jobs:
Visual tasks: Handling details like color, shape, and appearance (for example,
picturing a friend’s face or recalling what your car looks like).
Spatial tasks: Managing information about positions, directions, and movements
(such as mentally navigating your way to a familiar store or arranging furniture in a
room).
Essentially, the visuospatial sketchpad helps you manage and work with visual and spatial
information, enabling you to plan, organize, and interact effectively with the world around
you.
In everyday life, the visuospatial sketchpad helps you:
Mentally plan and follow directions while driving or walking.
Judge if a parking spot is large enough for your car.
Mentally retrace your steps when trying to find lost keys.
Imagine how clothes will look together before getting dressed.
Arrange ingredients on a pizza or toppings on a sandwich.
Visualize diagrams or maps to solve problems.
Overall, this system lets you create and manipulate mental images, helping you navigate
your physical environment and perform tasks that rely on visual imagination and spatial
awareness.
The Episodic Buffer
The original model was updated by Baddeley (2000) after the model failed to explain the
results of various experiments.
An additional component was added called the episodic buffer.
The episodic buffer acts as a “backup” store which communicates with both long-term
memory and the components of working memory.
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Fig 3 . Updated Model to include the Episodic Buffer
The episodic buffer is like your mind’s temporary storage box, bringing together different
kinds of information from various sources and combining them into meaningful “episodes”
or experiences.
Imagine it as your brain’s internal editor or storyteller, mixing visual details, sounds,
emotions, and memories into one coherent scene.
For example, when you recall a recent birthday party, the episodic buffer combines the
faces you saw, the conversations you heard, and the feelings you experienced into a
unified memory.
It has two key roles:
Combining information from different parts of working memory (like the
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad).
Connecting working memory to long-term memory, allowing you to relate
current experiences to past events and stored knowledge.
In daily life, the episodic buffer helps you:
Recall stories or movies by integrating images, sounds, and emotions.
Follow complex conversations by keeping track of what’s been said.
Imagine future events, such as planning a vacation, by combining details you’ve
previously seen or experienced.
Understand written text by linking together sentences and paragraphs into a
meaningful whole.
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Tthe episodic buffer helps you create a rich, coherent understanding of your experiences
by blending information from your senses, working memory, and long-term memory into
clear and meaningful mental episodes.
Critical Evaluation
Strengths
Researchers today generally agree that short-term memory is made up of a number of
components or subsystems.
The working memory model has replaced the idea of a unitary (one part) STM as
suggested by the multistore model.
The working memory model explains a lot more than the multistore model.
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It makes sense of a range of tasks – verbal reasoning, comprehension, reading, problem-
solving and visual and spatial processing. The model is supported by considerable
experimental evidence.
The working memory applies to real-life tasks:
reading (phonological loop)
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problem-solving (central executive)
navigation (visual and spatial processing)
The KF Case Study supports the Working Memory Model. KF suffered brain damage from
a motorcycle accident that damaged his short-term memory.
KF’s impairment was mainly for verbal information – but his memory for visual information
was largely unaffected.
This shows that there are separate STM components for visual information (VSS) and
verbal information (phonological loop).
The working memory model does not over-emphasize the importance of rehearsal for
STM retention, in contrast to the multi-store model.
Empirical Evidence for Working Memory
What evidence is there that working memory exists, that it comprises several parts, that
perform different tasks?
Working memory is supported by dual-task studies (Baddeley and Hitch, 1976).
The working memory model makes the following two predictions:
1. If two tasks make use of the same component (of working memory), they cannot
be performed successfully together.
2. If two tasks make use of different components, it should be possible to perform
them as well as together as separately.
Key Study: Baddeley and Hitch (1976)
Aim: To investigate if participants can use different parts of working memory at the same
time.
Method: Conducted an experiment in which participants were asked to perform two tasks
at the same time (dual task technique) – a digit span task which required them to repeat a
list of numbers, and a verbal reasoning task which required them to answer true or false
to various questions (e.g., B is followed by A?).
Results: As the number of digits increased in the digit span tasks, participants took longer
to answer the reasoning questions, but not much longer – only fractions of a second.
And, they didn”t make any more errors in the verbal reasoning tasks as the number of
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digits increased.
Conclusion: The verbal reasoning task made use of the central executive and the digit
span task made use of the phonological loop.
Brain Imaging Studies
Several neuroimaging studies have attempted to identify distinct neural correlates for the
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad posited by the multi-component model.
For example, some studies have found that tasks tapping phonological storage tend to
activate more left-hemisphere perisylvian language areas, whereas visuospatial tasks
activate more right posterior regions like the parietal cortex (Smith & Jonides, 1997).
However, the overall pattern of results remains complex and controversial. Meta-analyses
often fail to show consistent localization of verbal and visuospatial working memory
(Baddeley, 2012).
There is significant overlap in activation, which may reflect binding processes through the
episodic buffer, as well as common executive demands.
Differences in paradigms and limitations of neuroimaging methodology further complicate
mapping the components of working memory onto distinct brain regions or circuits
(Henson, 2001).
While neuroscience offers insight into working memory, Baddeley (2012) argues that clear
anatomical localization is unlikely given the distributed and interactive nature of working
memory.
Specifically, he suggests that each component likely comprises a complex neural circuit
rather than a circumscribed brain area.
Additionally, working memory processes are closely interrelated with other systems for
attention, perception and long-term memory.
Thus, neuroimaging provides clues but has not yet offered definitive evidence to validate
the separable storage components posited in the multi-component framework.
Further research using techniques with higher spatial and temporal resolution may help
better delineate the neural basis of verbal and visuo-spatial working memory.
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Weaknesses
Lieberman (1980) criticizes the working memory model as the visuospatial
sketchpad (VSS) implies that all spatial information was first visual (they are linked).
However, Lieberman points out that blind people have excellent spatial awareness,
although they have never had any visual information.
Lieberman argues that the VSS should be separated into two different components: one
for visual information and one for spatial.
There is little direct evidence for how the central executive works and what it does.
The capacity of the central executive has never been measured.
Working memory only involves STM, so it is not a comprehensive model of memory (as it
does not include SM or LTM).
The working memory model does not explain changes in processing ability that occur as
the result of practice or time.
State-based models of WM
Early models of working memory proposed specialized storage systems, such as the
phonological loop and visuospatial sketchpad, in Baddeley and Hitch’s (1974) influential
multi-component model.
However, newer “state-based” models suggest working memory arises from temporarily
activating representations that already exist in your brain’s long-term memory or
perceptual systems.
For example, you activate your memory of number concepts to remember a phone
number. Or, to remember where your keys are, you activate your mental map of the room.
According to state-based models, you hold information in mind by directing your attention
to these internal representations. This gives them a temporary “boost” of activity.
More recent state-based models argue against dedicated buffers, and propose that
working memory relies on temporarily activating long-term memory representations
through attention (Cowan, 1995; Oberauer, 2002) or recruiting perceptual and motor
systems (Postle, 2006; D’Esposito, 2007).
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Evidence from multivariate pattern analysis (MVPA) of fMRI data largely supports state-
based models, rather than dedicated storage buffers.
For example, Lewis-Peacock and Postle (2008) showed MVPA classifiers could decode
information being held in working memory from patterns of activity associated with long-
term memory for that content.
Other studies have shown stimulus-specific patterns of activity in sensory cortices support
the retention of perceptual information (Harrison & Tong, 2009; Serences et al., 2009).
Educational Applications
How does working memory affect academic performance?
Working memory significantly influences academic performance by underpinning many
core classroom activities, including learning new information, reading comprehension,
writing, mathematics, and problem-solving.
1. Foundation for Learning Tasks:
Working memory enables students to temporarily hold and manipulate information
essential for classroom tasks.
For example, when solving multi-step math problems, students must maintain
intermediate solutions in memory while simultaneously processing further calculations.
Similar demands occur in writing, where students hold sentence structures and ideas in
mind while physically writing them down.
2. Reading Comprehension:
Working memory facilitates reading by allowing students to remember previously read
words and sentences while integrating them with incoming text to understand overall
meaning.
Children with weaker working memory struggle more with comprehension, particularly
when reading complex or unfamiliar texts.
3. Writing and Communication:
Effective writing requires working memory to hold multiple ideas, grammar rules, and
sentence structures simultaneously.
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Students with working memory difficulties may frequently lose track of their ideas, omit
important details, or repeat themselves, resulting in weaker written work and less
coherent communication.
4. Following Instructions:
Students with limited working memory struggle to follow multi-step instructions because
they forget intermediate or later stages.
This difficulty significantly impacts their ability to participate effectively in classroom
activities, leading to incomplete or incorrect task completion, ultimately affecting their
overall academic progress.
5. Academic Achievement:
Research consistently finds a strong correlation between working memory capacity and
educational attainment.
Students with stronger working memory capabilities typically perform better academically,
as demonstrated by higher results in standardized tests like Key Stage assessments.
6. Learning New Material:
Students with reduced working memory capacity take longer to assimilate new
knowledge, struggling to connect new information to existing knowledge structures
(schemas).
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This slower integration negatively impacts the speed and efficiency of their learning
process.
Consequences for Education:
Teachers need to structure learning environments to reduce cognitive load and provide
external aids and memory-support strategies.
Without these supports, students with working memory limitations often fall behind
academically, not because of lower intelligence, but because they cannot effectively
manage the cognitive demands of typical classroom activities.
Working Memory and ADHD/Learning Disorders
Working memory plays a significant role in conditions like ADHD and learning disabilities,
which often involve challenges with attention, organization, and information processing.
Children with ADHD or dyslexia frequently rely heavily on their working memory – like a
mental notepad – just to keep track of instructions or stay organized.
This extra cognitive effort means they have less working memory available for other
tasks, leading to common difficulties such as forgetting instructions, losing track of tasks,
or becoming easily distracted.
Practical examples include a child with ADHD struggling to remember multi-step
instructions from a teacher because their working memory is already stretched thin by
trying to focus and filter out distractions.
Similarly, a child with dyslexia might struggle to retain and manipulate the sounds of
words in their working memory, making reading and spelling more challenging.
Imagine a student’s working memory is like a bucket that holds water.
Each new piece of information (such as instructions, steps for an assignment, or new
vocabulary words) is like adding drops of water into the bucket. Ideally, the bucket steadily
fills up, allowing the student to retain and use the information.
However, for students who struggle with working memory (like those with ADHD or
learning disabilities), the bucket may have holes or leaks.
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No matter how carefully you add water (information), some of it continually drains out.
This means the student quickly forgets instructions, struggles with multi-step tasks, or
appears easily distracted – not because they’re not trying, but because their “bucket”
can’t hold information as effectively as others.
Understanding these connections is especially valuable for parents, educators, and
caregivers, as it helps explain everyday behaviors seen in children with ADHD or learning
disorders.
This awareness can lead to more effective strategies and accommodations, such as
breaking tasks into smaller steps, providing visual supports, or using external reminders
to reduce the cognitive load on working memory.
As a teacher, recognizing this analogy helps you adjust how you deliver instructions or
content. For instance, you could:
Provide information in smaller chunks (fewer drops at a time).
Use frequent repetition and reminders (refilling the bucket periodically).
Give visual aids or written instructions (like placing a container underneath the
bucket to catch drips).
What strategies improve working memory?
Targeted training programs claiming to improve working memory generally have limited
practical impact.
Although students may improve on the specific tasks practiced during training, these
improvements rarely transfer to broader cognitive functions or real-world academic tasks.
As a result, such training is not recommended as an effective strategy for improving
working memory capacity or classroom performance.
While direct improvement of working memory capacity through specific training is
ineffective, teachers can significantly mitigate working memory challenges through
practical, supportive strategies.
These strategies help students better manage their existing working memory capacity,
thereby improving their ability to successfully engage with academic tasks and enhancing
overall classroom performance
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Effective Classroom Strategies to Manage Working Memory Limitations:
1. Reduce Task Complexity
Teachers should aim to limit cognitive load by simplifying tasks:
Break down instructions: Provide step-by-step guidance rather than complex
instructions.
Clarify task objectives: Clearly state the purpose of the task, ensuring students
understand precisely what is required.
Use clear, simple language: Avoid overly complicated sentences with multiple
clauses.
Simplify visual presentation: Minimize unnecessary distractions, like complex
fonts or irrelevant images, as these can divert attention and overload working
memory.
2. Provide Memory Aids (Externalizing Cognitive Load)
Memory aids or tools help students offload cognitive demands onto external resources,
reducing the load on working memory. Examples include:
Visual Prompts: Lists, diagrams, multiplication grids, number lines, or graphic
organizers that students can refer to during tasks.
Classroom Displays: Effective classroom displays should be clear, uncluttered,
and directly supportive of current learning tasks. Teachers should explicitly teach
students how to use these aids efficiently.
Technological Tools: Devices such as digital voice recorders or educational
software, helping students to retain instructions or complex information.
3. Establish and Reinforce Routines
Predictable classroom routines help automate basic processes, thereby freeing working
memory for more demanding cognitive tasks:
Routine behaviors: Establishing clear routines for common tasks (e.g., start-of-day
procedures, transitions, homework checking).
Following multi-step instructions: such as “Put away your books, take out your
spelling book, write the date, and face the front.”
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Learning routines: Using familiar frameworks or sequences for teaching activities,
such as regularly structured classroom discussions, consistent formatting of
worksheets, or repeated instructional formats.
4. Chunking Information
Grouping information into meaningful units (“chunks”) makes it easier to remember and
manipulate:
Mnemonic strategies: Employing familiar acronyms (like BIDMAS for order of
mathematical operations) or rhymes (such as historical sequences).
Explicit chunking techniques: Teaching students to group related ideas or
concepts to streamline recall and processing.
5. Note-Taking and Externalization
Encouraging students to externalize information through note-taking, thereby relieving
working memory demands:
Structured note-taking: Using simple outlines or concept maps to organize
information visually.
Accessible note-taking resources: Providing easy access to notepads,
whiteboards, or digital devices, allowing students to quickly record important points
or instructions.
6. Explicitly Teaching Memory-Supporting Strategies
Explicit instruction in strategies that students can independently employ to manage
working memory demands:
Rehearsal: Encouraging students to repeat information mentally or verbally to help
retain it temporarily (effective for short-term retention).
Requesting Help: Training students to recognize when they are struggling and to
proactively request clarification, repeated instructions, or reminders.
Leveraging Long-Term Memory: Encouraging students to link new information to
familiar concepts already stored in their long-term memory. Activating prior
knowledge helps ease the cognitive burden placed on working memory.
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Olivia Guy-Evans, MSc
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MSc Psychology of Education
Associate Editor for Simply Psychology
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Olivia Guy-Evans is a writer and associate editor for Simply Psychology, where she
contributes accessible content on psychological topics. She is also an autistic PhD
student at the University of Birmingham, researching autistic camouflaging in higher
education.
Saul McLeod, PhD
Editor-in-Chief for Simply Psychology
BSc (Hons) Psychology, MRes, PhD, University of Manchester
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Saul McLeod, PhD., is a qualified psychology teacher with over 18 years of experience in
further and higher education. He has been published in peer-reviewed journals, including
the Journal of Clinical Psychology.
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