Cambridge

IGCSE
Chemistry
First Edition

Hamza Abulaila
Contents
Block 1 Block 2
1 The particulate nature of matter 6 Acids and bases
1.1 States of matter 2 6.1 Properties of acids and bases 82
1.2 Heating and cooling curves 6 6.2 Solubility rules and writing ionic 88
1.3 Evidence for moving particles 9 equations
1.4 A closer look at gases 10 6.3 Types of oxides 91
6.4 Reactions of acids and bases 92
6.5 Making salts 97
2 Separating substances
2.1 Mixtures 15
7 Redox reactions
2.2 Separation techniques 18
7.1 Oxidation and reduction 102
7.2 Redox in terms of oxidation state 105
3 Atoms and elements 7.3 Oxidizing and reducing agents 111
33 7.4 Balancing redox equations 114
3.1 Atoms and elements
3.2 Introduction to the periodic table 36
3.3 Electron configuration 38 8 Electrolysis
8.1 Electrical circuits 117
8.2 Electrolysis using inert electrodes 119
4 Atoms combining 8.3 Electrolysis when electrodes are not 125
4.1 Compounds, mixtures and chemical 40 inert
changes
4.2 Chemical bonding 42 9 Metals
4.3 Comparing ionic and covalent 59 130
9.1 Introduction to metals
compounds 9.2 Reactions of metals 131
4.4 Giant covalent structure 60 134
9.3 Metals in competition
4.5 Writing chemical equations 66 138
9.4 Corrosion of metals
9.5 Extraction of metals 141
9.6 Alloys 144
5 Periodic table
5.1 Overview of the periodic table 71
5.2 Group I: Alkali metals 72
5.3 Group VII: Halogens 74
5.4 Group 0/8: Noble gases 77
5.5 The transition metals 78
5.4 Across the periodic table 79
 Block 3 Block 4

10 Moles and stoichiometry 14 Chemistry of our environment

10.1 Comparing the masses of 146 14.1 The composition of air 213
substances and the mole concept 14.2 Making use of air 215
10.2 Calculating number of moles 151 14.3 Air pollution 217
10.3 The stoichiometry of a reaction 156 14.4 Water supply 220
10.4 Finding concentration by titration 161
10.5 Working out chemical equations 162 15 Industrial inorganic chemistry
10.6 Empirical formula 170
10.7 Molecular formula 173 15.1 Ammonia 223
10.8 Percentage composition by mass 174 15.2 Contact process 224
10.9 Percentage yield and percentage 175 15.3 Limestone 225
purity
16 Organic chemistry
11 Energetics 16.1 Introduction to organic chemistry 227
16.2 Alkanes and cycloalkanes 232
11.1 Energy changes in reactions 179
16.3 Alkenes and cycloalkenes 247
11.2 Explaining energy changes 184
16.4 Alcohols 258
16.5 Carboxylic acids and esters 264
12 16.6 Polymers 270
The rate of reaction
12.1 Techniques for measuring the rate 189
of reaction Tests for chemical substances ………………….. 280
12.2 How a reaction takes place 192
A copy of the exam’s periodic table………….. 283
12.3 Factors affecting the rate of 193
reaction

13 Reversible reactions
13.1 Dynamic equilibrium 201
13.2 Le Chatelier’s principle 203
13.3 Crystal hydrates 210
13.4 Reversible reactions and 211
energetics
 > Topic 1
The particulate nature of matter

In this chapter you will:

 Learn about the properties of the three physical states of matter
 Understand that by changing the temperature, the physical state of a
substance can change
 Be able to interpret heating and cooling curves
 Understand the effects of impurities on the melting and boiling point
 Learn about the process of diffusion
 Discuss factors affecting rate of diffusion
 Understand the effects of temperature and volume on the pressure of
gases
1.1 States of matter

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space or volume. There are three physical states of matter:
solids, liquids, and gases. All matter is made up of tiny building units called particles which could be atoms,
molecules, or ions (more details in topic 4).

States of matter
Solid Liquid Gas
Structure

Arrangement Regular Random Random

Forces of attraction Strongest Moderate Weakest
between the
particles

Shape Fixed shape No fixed shape - takes No fixed shape - takes

shape of the container shape of the container

Volume Fixed volume Fixed volume No fixed volume-

expands to fill the
volume of the container

Fluidity Does not flow Generally flows (The Flows easily

(Gases and liquids are flow of a liquid depends
called fluids because on its viscosity)
they flow)
Density High Moderate to high Low
Motion Tiny vibrations only Random motion and can Random motion and can
(cannot move around move around each other move around each other
each other)

The properties of each state of matter arise from liquid becomes. Viscosity is a measure of the fluids
the attractive forces between the paticles that resistance to flow. For example, honey flows less
make up the substance. These attractive forces than water and so honey has higher viscosity than
hold the particles together. In solids, there are water. Gases still have attractive forces but they
more and stronger attractive forces which hold the are far weaker than those in solids and liquids. By
particles too closely hence giving them their changing the amount of attractive forces between
structure. In liquids, the attractive forces are not as the particles, the substance can change its physical
frequent and as strong as in [Link] stronger the state withought changing its chemical identity.
attractive forces in a liquid, the more viscose the
TOPIC 1: The particulate nature of matter 3

If you heat a solid, the energy provided by the heat source makes the particles in the solid vibrate faster and
faster because their kinetic energy increases. Eventually, they vibrate so fast that the forces of attraction
between the particles are no longer strong enough to hold them together; the particles are now able to move
around each other – the solid melts to form a liquid. The temperature at which a solid melts is called its
melting point.

If the liquid is cooled again, the liquid particles will move around more and more slowly because their kinetic
energy decreases. Eventually they are moving so slowly that the forces of attraction between them will hold
them in a fixed position and the particles pack more closely together into a solid. The liquid freezes, forming a
solid. The temperature at which this occurs is called the freezing point.
The melting point and the freezing point of a substance are exactly the same
TOPIC 1: The particulate nature of matter 4

Boiling occurs when a liquid is heated so strongly that the particles are moving fast enough to overcome all
the attractive forces between the particles. The stronger the attractive forces between the particles are, the
higher the boiling point of the liquid will be. This is because more energy is needed to overcome these forces
of attraction.

If a gas is cooled, the particles eventually move slowly enough that forces of attraction between them start to
form and hold them together as a liquid. This is called condensation.

A small number of substances can change directly from a solid to a gas, or from a gas to a solid without turning
into a liquid in between. The conversion of a solid into a gas is known as sublimation and the reverse process is
called desublimation or deposition.

Dry ice (solid carbon dioxide) and iodine are examples of substances that undergo sublimation. Iodine is grey-
black when solid, and purple when gaseous as shown in the diagram.

Gaseous iodine is purple

Solid iodine is black

TOPIC 1: The particulate nature of matter 5

Liquids can absorb heat from the surrounding and use that to overcome
the attractive forces between the particles and convert to a gas. This
change is called evaporation and it doesn’t require external heating. The
rate of evaporation increases when the surface of the liquid increases.
The warmer the liquid is (the warmer the surrounding temperature is)
the faster the liquid evaporates. Liquids which have weak attractive
forces and lower boiling points are volatile (evaporate easily).
Evaporation and boiling are not the same. Boiling occurs at a specific
temperature (the boiling point), evaporation can take place over a range
of temperatures.

SUBJECT VOCABULARY
Matter - anything that has mass and takes up space or volume
Melting – A physical process involving a change in physical state from solid to liquid
Freezing – A physical process involving a change in physical state from liquid to solid
Boiling – A physical process involving a change in physical state from liquid to gas

Condensation – A physical process involving a change in physical state from gas to liquid
Sublimation – A physical process involving a change in physical state from solid to gas directly without forming
a liquid in between
Desublimation / Deposition - A physical process involving a change in physical state from gas to solid directly
without forming a liquid in between
1.2 Heating and cooling curves

-Heating curve of a pure substance -Cooling curve of a pure substance

Gas and liquid

Boiling point

Melting point
Liquid and solid

This graph shows the heating curve of pure water The same concepts apply to a cooling curve. The
at room temperature (20 oC) and pressure (1 atm). temperature progressively decreases as a
substance is being cooled. During condensation
As the solid ice is heated, its particles gain kinetic
and freezing the temperatures remain constant.
energy and vibrate more violently and so the
This is because energy gets released as a result of
temperature of the solid increases.
forming attractive forces between the particles.
At 0 oC (the melting point), the solid begins to melt
The freezing point is -15 oC for this graph and its
– at this stage there is solid and liquid present
equivalent to the melting point. The boiling point is
together and the temperature remains constant
78 oC.
until all the solid has melted.
When all the solid has melted, the continued
supply of heat energy causes the kinetic energy of
the particles to increase, and the particles in the
liquid start to move around each other more
quickly.

At 100 oC (the boiling point), the liquid starts to boil

– at this stage there is liquid and gas present
together and the temperature remains constant.

The continued supply of heat energy increases the

kinetic energy of the particles of the gas so they
move around faster and faster as the temperature
of the gas increases.
The temperature remains constant during melting
and boiling because all the heat energy being
supplied is used to overcome the forces of
attraction between the particles
TOPIC 1: The particulate nature of matter 7

-Working out physical states of a substance

Worked example 1
Identify the physical state of the following substances at room temperature.

Substance Melting point / oC Boiling point / oC

Oxygen -219 -183
Nitrogen -210 -196
Ethanol -117 78
Water 0 100
Sulfur 115 444
Sodium chloride 801 1465
Copper 1083 2600
Carbon dioxide -78

Room temperature is 20 oC. The substance is…..

 Solid when the melting and boiling points are greater than 20 oC
 Liquid when the melting point is less than 20 oC but the boiling point is more than 20 oC
 Gas when the melting and boiling points are less than 20 oC

Substance Melting point / oC

Oxygen Gas
Nitrogen Gas
Ethanol Liquid
Water Liquid
Sulfur Solid
Sodium chloride Solid
Copper Solid
Carbon dioxide Gas

Notice for carbon dioxide, the melting and boiling point are merged into one value. This means that carbon
dioxide undergoes sublimation rather than melting and boiling.

Note
Room temperature is different in different places but in
science it is usually between 20 and 25 oC. Because there is not
just one fixed value, for changes of state that occur near room
temperature we must be careful when making comparisons
and make clear what value is being used as room temperature
TOPIC 1: The particulate nature of matter 8

-The effect of impurities

A pure substance consists of only one type of Impurities lower the melting point, and raise the
substance and no other contaminating substances boiling point of the substance. Pure substances
(impurities). Pure substances boil and melt at have a definite and sharp boiling and melting
definite temperatures and have a sharp melting points; however, the addition of impurities means
and boiling point. The values of the melting point that these changes will be spread over a range of
and boiling point of pure substances are precise temperatures in each case.
and predictable. This means we use them to test
The more impurities a mixture has, the bigger
for purity of a sample. They can also be used to
change there is in melting and boiling points and so
check the identity of a substance.
the wider the range over which melting and boiling
Impurities are chemical substances inside a occurs.
confined amount of liquid, gas, or solid, which
differ from the chemical composition of the
material or compound.

Melting point decreases when Boiling point increases when

impurities are added impurities are added

Melting point Boiling point

Comparing heating curves of pure and impure substances

Naphthalene has a straight line where phase transition

occurs where as in wax, there is no sharp region where
phase change occurs. This tells us that wax is an impure
mixture, whereas naphthalene is a pure substance.

The graph is a horizontal line where phase

transition occurs; this means that melting and
boiling points are sharp and the substance is pure

The graph is sloped and not completely horizontal

where phase transition occurs; this means that the
melting and boiling points occur at a range of
temperatures and the substance is impure
1.3 Evidence for moving particles

-Brownian motion
Smoke particles in air have a random movement caused by the random bombardment of air particles in all
directions. This movement is called Brownian motion

Note
Brownian Motion is removed
from the syllabus

-Diffusion
Diffusion is the movement of particles from a region of higher concentration to a region of lower
concentration down their concentration gradient and it caused by the random movement of particles.
1.4 A closer look at gases

A gas in a closed container will move and collide with the walls of the container exerting pressure on it. The
pressure exerted by a gas is what keeps a balloon inflated.
Factors affecting pressure:

 Temperature
As temperature of a gas increases, the gas particles gain kinetic energy and start to move faster. This
causes the gas particles to collide with the walls of the container more frequently and forcefully and so
the pressure increases.

Temperature and pressure are directly proportional

 Volume
When a closed container of a gas is squeezed into a smaller volume, the particles become closer to
each other and start to collide with the walls of the container more frequently increasing pressure.

volume and pressure are inversely proportional

All gases can be compressed. If enough force is applied, the particles can be pushed too close that the gas
turns into liquid. Liquids and solids cannot be compressed because the particles are already very close
together.

-Rate of diffusion of gases

The rate of diffusion of gases is affected by three factors:
Key point
 Relative molecular mass (Mr) of the gas particles
You will learn about relative
The higher the relative molecular mass of the gas particles is,
molecular mass in topic 10
the heavier the gas gets and the slower it moves and diffuses.
 Temperature
The higher the temperature the more kinetic energy the particles have and so the faster they move
and diffuse. They will also collide with each other more forcefully and bounce off further away.
 Medium in which the substance is diffusing in
Substances can diffuse in a liquid or a gaseous medium. Diffusion is faster in a gaseous medium rather
than a liquid medium. This is because the particles in a liquid move more slowly than the particles of in
a gas. The particles in a liquid are also much closer than those in a gas and so there is less space for
particles to move into without colliding with another one.
TOPIC 1: The particulate nature of matter 11

Worked Example 1 Explain why the white smoke forms closer to the
HCl?
Small crystals of purple KMnO4 (Mr = 158) and
orange K2Cr2O7 (Mr = 294) were placed at the NH3 particles have a lower Mr and are lighter, so
centers of separate petri dishes filled with agar they diffuse faster than HCl does.
jelly. They were left to stand under the same Part 2:
physical conditions. These were the results of the
experiment: The experiment is repeated but at a higher
temperature. Explain how the results will be
different?
When temperature is increased, the particles gain
kinetic energy and move faster. Therefore, the
white cloud would form in less time but at the
same location since the masses of the gases hasn’t
changed.

Question 1

Explain the results. Silver nitrate can react with ammonium

dichromate to produce a red solid of silver
The lengths of the arrows represent the relative dichromate. Dichromate ions Cr2O72- have Mr = 216
distances travelled by particles of each substance. Silver ions Ag+ have Mr = 107.9
Since KMnO4 has a smaller Mr, it is lighter and thus
diffuses faster. Therefore, it travels a greater
distance than K2Cr2O7 for the same time.

Worked Example 2
Part 1: Explain the results of the experiment [Marks = 3]
Cotton wool is soaked in ammonia NH3 (Mr = 17) Answer 1
and placed into one end of a long tube; it gives off
ammonia gas. At the same time, another cotton  Dichromate ions are heavier than silver ions
wool is soaked in hydrochloric acid HCl (Mr = 36.5)  Dichromate diffuses more slowly than silver
and is put in to the other end of the tube, it gives  Where they meet, they react and silver
off hydrogen chloride gas. The gases diffuse along dichromate is made / red solid
the tube and a white smoke of ammonium chloride
NH4Cl forms where they meet:
TOPIC 1: The particulate nature of matter 12

Question 2
TOPIC 1: The particulate nature of matter 13

Question 3
What are the two physical changes that occur when a perfume bottle is left open? [Marks = 2]

Answer 3
1. Evaporation
2. Diffusion
Students’ book
Created by Dr. Hamza Abulaila to support the new 2023 chemistry
IGCSE 0620 syllabus. Dr. Hamza is a very well experienced chemistry
tutor that has helped students from all around the world achieve
very great results. Prior to teaching, he was a student that excelled in
chemistry scoring the highest mark in the world and winning four
Queen Rania’s Outstanding UK Learner Awards. This book shares the
knowledge and skills necessary to help you ace your chemistry
exams; it has past paper questions, worked examples, many
diagrams and much more!
If you have any questions or concerns, or would like to book private
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