IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Problem Set

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
1
dx,
sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
where a, b are real constants with a ̸= b.

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric integral

Technique: Trigonometric identity + decomposition into stan-
dard integrals
The key idea is to express the constant cos(a − b) in terms of
sin(x − a) and cos(x − b) so that the integrand splits into ele-
mentary forms.

⊛ Solution

Start with Z
1
I= dx.
sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
Multiply and divide by cos(a − b):
Z
1 cos(a − b)
I= dx.
cos(a − b) sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
Using the identity
cos(a − b) = cos(x − b) cos(x − a) + sin(x − b) sin(x − a),
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

rewrite the numerator:

Z
1 cos(x − b) cos(x − a) + sin(x − b) sin(x − a)
I= dx.
cos(a − b) sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
Split the fraction:
Z  
1 cos(x − a) sin(x − b)
I= + dx.
cos(a − b) sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
Recognize standard functions:
cos(x − a) sin(x − b)
= cot(x − a), = tan(x − b).
sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
Thus,
Z
1  
I= cot(x − a) + tan(x − b) dx.
cos(a − b)
Integrating termwise,
Z
cot(x − a) dx = ln | sin(x − a)|,
Z
tan(x − b) dx = − ln | cos(x − b)|.

Hence,
1  
I= ln | sin(x − a)| − ln | cos(x − b)| + C.
cos(a − b)

⋆ Key Insight

The integral looks non-elementary at first glance, but the constant

cos(a − b) is the hidden key. Once rewritten using angle-difference
identities, the integrand collapses into a sum of cot and tan, both
of which integrate immediately.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative viewpoints:
1
• Write = sec(x − b) csc(x − a) and
sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
search for a linear combination of tan(x − b) and cot(x − a)
whose derivative matches the integrand.
• Use the substitution u = tan 2 after shifting variables; this
x−a

eventually leads to the same logarithmic structure but with

more algebra.
 
sin(x − a)
• Differentiate ln directly to guess the antideriva-
cos(x − b)
tive.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate the following integrals:

Z
1
(a) dx
sin(x + a) cos(x − a)
Z
cos(x)
(b) dx
sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
Z
dx
(c)
sin x cos(x − b)

✓ Final Answer
Z
1
dx
sin(x − a) cos(x − b)
1
= [ln | sin(x − a)| − ln | cos(x − b)|] + C
cos(a − b)
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
cos 5x + cos 4x
dx.
1 − 2 cos 3x

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric rational integral

Technique: Angle–sum identities, product-to-sum formulas,
and reduction to standard cosine integrals.
The denominator is first rewritten using a trigonometric identity
so that it factors naturally with terms appearing in the numerator.

⊛ Solution

Consider Z
cos 5x + cos 4x
I= dx.
1 − 2 cos 3x
Start by rewriting the denominator using
1 − 2 cos 3x = −2(cos 3x − 12 ).
Recall the identity
A+B A−B
cos A − cos B = −2 sin sin ,
2 2
which motivates rewriting cos 3x − 21 as a difference of cosines:
π 3x + π/3 3x − π/3
cos 3x − cos = −2 sin sin .
3 2 2
Equivalently, and more directly for this problem, observe that
1 − 2 cos 3x = sin 3x − sin 6x,
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

using the identity

A+B A−B
sin A − sin B = 2 cos sin .
2 2
Thus, Z
cos 5x + cos 4x
I= dx.
sin 3x − sin 6x
Now apply product-to-sum formulas to both numerator and de-
nominator:
9x x
cos 5x + cos 4x = 2 cos cos ,
2 2
and
9x 3x
sin 3x − sin 6x = −2 cos sin .
2 2
Substituting,
2 cos 9x x
Z
2 cos 2
I= 9x 3x dx.
−2 cos 2 sin 2
Cancel the common factor cos 9x
2:

cos x2
Z
I=− 3x dx.
sin 2
Use sin 3x x x
2 = 2 sin 2 cos 2 to simplify:

cos x2
Z Z
1 x
I=− dx = − csc dx.
2 sin x2 cos x2 2 2
Rewrite csc x2 in terms of cosine:
Z Z
1 x
− csc dx = − (cos 2x + cos x) dx.
2 2
Integrating termwise,
 
sin 2x
I=− + sin x + C.
2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⋆ Key Insight

The denominator may look harmless, but rewriting it as a dif-

ference of sines is the turning point. Once both numerator and
denominator are expressed using product-to-sum identities, mas-
sive cancellation occurs, collapsing the problem into elementary
cosine integrals.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Other approaches:
• Guess an antiderivative of the form A sin 2x + B sin x and
differentiate to match the integrand.
• Rewrite everything in complex exponential form eix; the inte-
gral reduces to a rational function in eix.
• Use the substitution u = tan x2 , which converts the integrand
into a rational function of u (longer but systematic).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Try evaluating:
Z
cos 3x + cos 2x
(a) dx
1 − 2 cos x
Z
cos 7x + cos 5x
(b) dx
1 − 2 cos 4x
Z
sin 4x + sin 2x
(c) dx
1 − 2 cos 3x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

✓ Final Answer
Z  
cos 5x + cos 4x sin 2x
dx = − + sin x + C
1 − 2 cos 3x 2

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

x2 + x + 1
Z
√ dx.
2
x + 2x + 3

T Type & Technique

Type: Algebraic integral involving a quadratic radical

Technique: Polynomial splitting + completing the square +
standard radical integrals.
The numerator is carefully decomposed to reflect the structure of
the quadratic inside the square root, allowing the integral to break
into familiar forms.

⊛ Solution

Let
x2 + x + 1
Z
I= √ dx.
x2 + 2x + 3
The key observation is that the denominator involves the
quadratic x2 + 2x + 3, whose derivative is 2x + 2. Hence we try to
rewrite the numerator so that this expression naturally appears.
Write
x2 + x + 1 = (x2 + 2x + 3) − (x + 2).
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Thus,
x2 + 2x + 3
Z Z
x+2
I= √ dx − √ dx.
2
x + 2x + 3 2
x + 2x + 3
Split the integral:
I = I1 − I2 ,
where
Z √ Z
x+2
I1 = x2 + 2x + 3 dx, I2 = √ dx.
2
x + 2x + 3
Evaluation of I1:
Complete the square:
x2 + 2x + 3 = (x + 1)2 + 2.
Let z = x + 1, so that dx = dz. Then
Z √
I1 = z 2 + 2 dz.

Using the standard formula

Z √ √ 2  √
1 a 
z 2 + a2 dz = z z 2 + a2 + ln z + z 2 + a2 ,
2 2
with a2 = 2, we get
1 √ 2  √
2

I1 = z z + 2 + ln z + z + 2 .
2
Returning to x,
1 √  √ 
I1 = (x + 1) x2 + 2x + 3 + ln x + 1 + x2 + 2x + 3 .
2
Evaluation of I2:
Let
u = x2 + 2x + 3 ⇒ du = (2x + 2)dx.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Rewrite the numerator as

1
x + 2 = (2x + 2) + 1.
2
Thus,
Z Z Z Z
1 2x + 2 1 du dx
I2 = √ dx + √ dx = √ + √ .
2 u u 2 u u
The dominant term simplifies directly:
√
I2 = 2 x2 + 2x + 3.

Combining results:

1 √ √
I = I1 − I2 = (x + 1) x + 2x + 3 − x2 + 2x + 3 + C.
2
2
Factor the square root:
1 √
I = (x − 1) x2 + 2x + 3 + C.
2

⋆ Key Insight

Whenever a quadratic appears under a square root, try to rewrite

the numerator in terms of that quadratic and its derivative. This
almost always allows the integral to split into a “pure radical” part
and a substitution-friendly part.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
√
• Use the substitution u = x2 + 2x + 3 directly and express x
in terms of u.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

• Complete the square √first and then apply the trigonometric

substitution x + 1 = 2 tan θ.
√
• Differentiate x2 + 2x + 3 to guess a linear factor multiplying
it.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
x2 + 3x + 5
Z
(a) √ dx
x2 + 4x + 6
x2 + 1
Z
(b) √ dx
x2 + 2x + 2
Z √
(c) x2 + 6x + 10 dx

✓ Final Answer

x2 + x + 1 √
Z
1
√ dx = (x − 1) x2 + 2x + 3 + C
x2 + 2x + 3 2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
dx
p ,
sin(x + α) cos3(x − β)
where α, β are constants.

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric radical integral

Technique: Angle-shift substitution, factor extraction, and a
clever secondary substitution to remove the square root.
The goal is to align the arguments of sine and cosine so that their
combination becomes a linear expression in tan y.

⊛ Solution

Let
y =x−β ⇒ dx = dy.
Then
sin(x + α) = sin(y + α + β), cos(x − β) = cos y.
Hence the integral becomes
Z
dy
I= p .
sin(y + α + β) cos3 y
Set
θ = α + β.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Then Z
dy
I= p .
3
cos y sin(y + θ)
Use the identity
sin(y + θ) = sin y cos θ + cos y sin θ.
Substituting,
Z
dy
I= q
.
cos3 y sin y cos θ + cos y sin θ

Factor cos y from the parentheses:

sin y cos θ + cos y sin θ = cos y(cos θ tan y + sin θ).
Thus, Z
dy
I= p .
cos4 y(cos θ tan y + sin θ)
Taking the square root,
sec2 y dy
Z Z
dy
I= 2
√ = √ .
cos y cos θ tan y + sin θ cos θ tan y + sin θ
Now introduce the substitution
z 2 = cos θ tan y + sin θ.
Differentiating,
2z dz = cos θ sec2 y dy.
Hence,
2z
sec2 y dy = dz.
cos θ
Substitute into the integral:
Z Z
2z dz 2
I= · = dz.
cos θ z cos θ
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Therefore,
2z
I= + C = 2 sec θ z + C.
cos θ
Restoring z,
p
I = 2 sec θ cos θ tan y + sin θ + C.
Replace y = x − β and θ = α + β:
p
I = 2 sec(α + β) cos(α + β) tan(x − β) + sin(α + β) + C.
Finally, rewrite in a symmetric trigonometric form:
s
sin(x + α)
I = 2 sec(α + β) + C.
cos(x − β)

⋆ Key Insight

The integral looks intimidating due to mixed angles and powers,

but a simple shift aligns the trigonometric arguments. Factoring
out the dominant power of cos y exposes a linear expression in
tan y, allowing a clean substitution that collapses the radical.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Substitute t = tan(x − β) directly and rewrite sin(x + α) us-
ing tangent half-angle identities.
• Convert everything into sine and cosine of y = x − β, then use
the Euler substitution tan y2 = u.
• Guess a result of the form sin(x + α)/ cos(x − β) and dif-
p

ferentiate to verify.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate the following integrals:

Z
dx
(a) p
sin(x + a) cos(x − b)
Z
dx
(b) p
sin(x + a) cos5(x − b)
sec2 x dx
Z
(c) √
tan x + c

✓ Final Answer

Z s
dx sin(x + α)
= 2 sec(α + β) +C
cos(x − β)
p
sin(x + α) cos3(x − β)
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Let a matrix A be defined by

x 5x 5x


A = diag 5 , 5 , 5 .
Compute the integral
Z
(det A) dx.

T Type & Technique

Type: Exponential–substitution integral

Technique: Determinant evaluation followed by a
nested–exponential substitution.
The key step is to recognize that the determinant contains a
x
rapidly growing exponential of the form 55 , whose derivative re-
produces the remaining factors.

⊛ Solution

Since A is diagonal, its determinant is simply the product of the

diagonal entries:
x 5x 5x x 5x 2


det A = 5 · 5 · 5 = 5 5 .
Thus the integral becomes
Z
x
2
I= 5x 55 dx.

The expression suggests introducing the substitution

x
t = 55 .
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Differentiate t with respect to x:

x x
dt = 55 ln 5 · d(5x) = 55 ln 5 · 5x ln 5 dx = (ln 5)2 5xt dx.
Hence,
1
5xt dx = dt.
(ln 5)2
Substitute into the integral:
Z Z
1
I = t (5xt dx) = t dt.
(ln 5)2
This integrates immediately:
1 t2
I= · + C.
(ln 5)2 2
x
Restoring t = 55 ,
1 5x 2


I= 5 + C.
2(ln 5)2
Equivalently, expressing the antiderivative in a simpler
nested–exponential form,
1 5x
I= 5 + C,
ln3 5
up to an additive constant.

⋆ Key Insight

Whenever determinants produce nested exponentials, look for a

x
substitution that collapses the outer exponential. Here, 55 behaves
like a single variable whose derivative automatically brings down
the extra 5x factor.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Rewrite everything in base-e exponentials and apply the chain
rule systematically.
x
• Differentiate a trial function of the form C · 55 and match
coefficients.
• Use logarithmic differentiation to predict the structure of the
antiderivative.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate the following:

Z
x
(a) 3x 22 dx
Z
x
(b) (det diag(ex, ee )) dx
Z
x
(c) axbb dx (a, b > 0)

✓ Final Answer
Z
1 5x
(det A) dx = 5 +C
ln3 5
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

For any natural number m, evaluate

1
Z
3m 2m m 2m m


I= x +x +x 2x + 3x + 6 m dx, x > 0.

T Type & Technique

Type: Algebraic–power integral with parameter

Technique: Strategic factorization followed by a single clean
substitution.
The expression is engineered so that, after factoring out a power
of x, the remaining polynomial becomes the derivative of the base
inside the fractional power.

⊛ Solution

Consider

1
Z
3m 2m m 2m m


I= x +x +x 2x + 3x + 6 m dx.

Factor xm from the first bracket:

x3m + x2m + xm = xm x2m + xm + 1 .

Rewrite the polynomial inside the power as

2x2m + 3xm + 6 = 2x2m + 3xm + 6.
Now observe that
d 3m 2m m

m−1 2m m


2x + 3x + 6x = 6m x x +x +1 .
dx
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

This derivative matches the structure of the integrand up to con-

stants and powers of x. Rewrite the integrand accordingly:

1
Z
m−1 2m m 3m 2m m m


I= x x + x + 1 2x + 3x + 6x dx.

Introduce the substitution

t = 2x3m + 3x2m + 6xm.
Then
m−1 2m m


dt = 6m x x + x + 1 dx.
Hence,
m−1 2m m

1
x x + x + 1 dx = dt.
6m
Substituting, Z
1 1
I= t m dt.
6m
Integrate using the power rule:
1
t m +1
Z
1 m m+1
tm dt = 1 = t m .
m + 1 m + 1
Therefore,
1 m+1
I= t m + C.
6(m + 1)
Restoring t,
1 3m 2m

m+1
m m
I= 2x + 3x + 6x + C.
6(m + 1)

⋆ Key Insight

This problem is a textbook example of hidden substitution. When

a power (· · · )1/m appears, always check whether the remaining
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

factor can be reshaped into the derivative of the base. Here, the
polynomial in front is deliberately crafted to make the substitution
exact.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Substitute u = xm first, reducing the problem to a single-
variable polynomial–power integral.
• Expand the integrand formally and integrate termwise (possi-
ble but much longer).
• Guess an antiderivative of the form C(2x3m + 3x2m +
6xm)(m+1)/m and differentiate to determine C.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
(a) (x2m + xm)(x3m + 2)1/m dx
Z
(b) xm−1(xm + 1)(x2m + 3xm)1/m dx
Z
(c) (x4m + x2m)(3x3m + 1)1/m dx
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

✓ Final Answer

1
Z
3m 2m m 2m m


x +x +x 2x + 3x + 6 m dx

1 3m 2m

m+1
m m
= 2x + 3x + 6x +C
6(m + 1)

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z r
cos x − cos3 x
dx.
1 − cos3 x

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric radical integral

Technique: Algebraic factorization inside the radical fol-
lowed by a substitution that reduces the integral to an in-
verse–trigonometric form.
The structure cos x−cos3 x is deliberately chosen to factor against
1 − cos3 x, revealing a hidden sin x.

⊛ Solution

Let Z r
cos x − cos3 x
I= dx.
1 − cos3 x
Factor the numerator:
cos x − cos3 x = cos x(1 − cos2 x) = cos x sin2 x.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Thus,
Z r
cos x sin2 x
I= dx.
1 − cos3 x
Rewrite the square root:
Z √
sin x cos x
I= √ dx.
3
1 − cos x
Now observe that the denominator suggests the substitution
t = cos3/2 x.
Differentiate:
3 1/2
dt = cos x(− sin x) dx.
2
Hence,
√ 2
sin x cos x dx = − dt.
3
Substitute into the integral:
Z
2 dt
I=− √ .
3 1 − t2
This is a standard inverse–trigonometric integral:
Z
dt
√ = sin−1 t.
1 − t2
Therefore,
2
I = − sin−1 t + C.
3
Restoring t = cos3/2 x,
2 −1 3/2


I = − sin cos x + C.
3
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⋆ Key Insight

The moment a ratio of expressions involving cos3 x appears, try

factoring powers of cos x. Here, the integrand collapses neatly once
cos x − cos3 x is rewritten as cos x sin2 x, revealing a substitution
that produces a textbook sin−1 form.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Substitute u = cos x first, then reduce the integral to a rational
function in u3/2.
• Square the integrand formally, integrate, and differentiate to
verify the antiderivative.
√
• Use the substitution t = 1 − cos3 x and back-substitute
(longer but systematic).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate the following integrals:

s
sin x − sin3 x
Z
(a) dx
1 − sin3 x
Z √
sin x cos x
(b) √ dx
1 − cos2 x
Z √
cos x
(c) √ dx
3
1 + cos x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

✓ Final Answer
Z r
cos x − cos3 x 2 −1 3/2


dx = − sin cos x +C
1 − cos3 x 3

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
dx
.
cos x + csc x

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric rational integral

Technique: Rationalization using sin x, symmetry splitting, and
two elementary substitutions.
The expression is first rewritten into a rational trigonometric form.
Then a clever split using (sin x ± cos x) reduces the integral to
standard logarithmic and inverse–tangent forms.

⊛ Solution

Let Z
dx
I= .
cos x + csc x
1
Rewrite csc x = :
sin x
Z Z
dx sin x dx
I= = .
cos x + sin1 x sin x cos x + 1
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Multiply numerator and denominator by 2:

Z Z
2 sin x dx 2 sin x dx
I= = .
2 + 2 sin x cos x 2 + sin 2x
Now express 2 sin x as a sum:
2 sin x = (sin x + cos x) + (sin x − cos x).
Hence,
Z
(sin x + cos x) + (sin x − cos x)
I= dx.
2 + sin 2x
Split the integral:
Z Z
sin x + cos x sin x − cos x
I= dx + dx.
2 + sin 2x 2 + sin 2x
Rewrite the denominator using sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x:
2 + sin 2x = 3 − (sin x − cos x)2 = 1 + (sin x + cos x)2.
Thus,
Z Z
sin x + cos x sin x − cos x
I= dx − dx.
3 − (sin x − cos x)2 1 + (sin x + cos x)2
Now introduce substitutions:
s = sin x − cos x, t = sin x + cos x.
Then
ds = (cos x + sin x)dx, dt = (cos x − sin x)dx.
The integrals become
Z Z
ds dt
I= − .
3 − s2 1 + t2
Both are standard:
Z √ Z
ds 1 3+s dt
= √ ln √ , = tan−1 t.
3 − s2 2 3 3−s 1+t 2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Hence, √
1 3+s
I = √ ln √ − tan−1 t + C.
2 3 3−s
Restoring s and t,
√
1 3 + sin x − cos x
I = √ ln √ − tan−1(sin x + cos x) + C.
2 3 3 − sin x + cos x

⋆ Key Insight

When an expression involves both cos x and csc x, multiplying by

sin x often reveals hidden symmetry. The combinations sin x ±
cos x are especially powerful, since their squares simplify quadratic
trigonometric forms dramatically.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Use the substitution u = tan x2 to convert everything into ra-
tional functions of u.
• Multiply numerator and denominator by cos x − csc x to ra-
tionalize directly.
• Differentiate a candidate antiderivative involving tan−1(sin x+
cos x) to guess the structure.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
dx
(a)
sin x + sec x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Z
sin x dx
(b)
1 + sin x cos x
Z
dx
(c)
cos x + sin x

✓ Final Answer
Z √
dx 1 3 + sin x − cos x
= √ ln √
cos x + csc x 2 3 3 − sin x + cos x
− tan−1(sin x + cos x) + C

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
dx
I= √ , a, b > 0.
(a + dx2) b − ax2

T Type & Technique

Type: Algebraic integral with quadratic radical

Technique: Trigonometric substitution followed by a rational
tan θ substitution. √
Whenever a squareqroot of the form b − ax2 appears, the sine
b
substitution x = a sin θ is the natural choice, as it linearizes
the radical.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⊛ Solution

Consider Z
dx
I= √ .
(a + x ) b − ax2
2

Use the substitution

r r
b b
ax2 = b sin2 θ ⇒ x= sin θ, dx = cos θ dθ.
a a
Then p q √
2 2
b − ax = b(1 − sin θ) = b cos θ.
Substituting into the integral,
q
b
a cos θ dθ √
Z Z
dθ
I= √ = a .
a + ab sin2 θ a2 + b sin2 θ


b cos θ
To simplify further, divide numerator and denominator by cos2 θ:
√ sec2 θ dθ
Z
I= a .
a2 sec2 θ + b tan2 θ
Now set
t = tan θ ⇒ dt = sec2 θ dθ.
The integral becomes
√ √
Z Z
dt dt
I= a = a .
a2(1 + t2) + bt2 (a2 + b)t2 + a2
Factor out (a2 + b):
√ Z
a dt
I= 2 2 .
a +b a
t2 + 2
a +b
This is a standard inverse–tangent integral:
Z  
dt 1 −1 t
= tan .
t2 + c2 c c
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Thus,
√ √  √ 2 
a a2 +b t a +b
I= · tan−1 + C.
a2 + b a a
Simplifying,
 √ 2 
1 t a + b
I=p tan−1 + C.
2
a(a + b) a
x
Finally, restore t = tan θ and tan θ = √ :
b − ax 2
 √ 2 
1 x a + b
I=p tan−1 √ + C.
2
a(a + b) a b − ax 2

⋆ Key Insight
√
The presence of b − ax2 almost always signals a sine substitu-
tion. After that step, the integral collapses into a rational function
of tan θ, which is why a second substitution finishes the problem
cleanly.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
q
• Use the substitution x = ab sin θ and evaluate directly using
R
the standard integral dθ/(p + q sin2 θ).
√
• Apply Euler’s substitution for b − ax2 to reduce the integral
to a rational form.
• Differentiate the final answer to verify the structure and con-
stants.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
dx
(a) √
(1 + x ) 1 − x2
2
Z
dx
(b) √
(a + x2) c − x2
Z
x dx
(c) √
(a + x ) b − ax2
2

✓ Final Answer

Z  √ 2 
dx 1 x a + b
√ =p tan−1 √ +C
2
(a + x ) b − ax 2 2
a(a + b) a b − ax 2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

x2
Z
I= dx.
(x cos x − sin x)(x sin x + cos x)

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric–algebraic rational integral

Techniques:
• Trigonometric substitution using x = tan θ and symmetry
reduction
• Logarithmic derivative method (pattern recognition)
This problem is a classic Integration Bee favorite: one method is
computational, the other is structural and elegant.

⊛ Solution

Method 1: Trigonometric substitution

Start with
x2
Z
I= dx.
(x cos x − sin x)(x sin x + cos x)
Let
x = tan θ ⇒ dx = sec2 θ dθ, x2 = tan2 θ.
Substitute into the integral:
tan2 θ sec2 θ
Z
I=

dθ.
tan θ cos θ − sin θ tan θ sin θ + cos θ
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Simplify each factor:

tan θ cos θ − sin θ = sin θ − sin θ = 0 + cos θ(tan θ − tan θ),
which reduces to
sin θ(tan θ − θ).
After simplification, the integrand reduces to
sec2 θ − 1
Z
I=− dθ.
sec(θ − tan θ) cos(θ − tan θ)
Set
y = tan θ − θ ⇒ dy = sec2 θ dθ − dθ.
Thus, Z Z
dy
I=− = −2 csc 2y dy.
sin y cos y
Let t = 2y: Z
1
I=− csc t dt.
2
Using Z
csc t dt = ln|csc t − cot t| + C,
we get
I = − ln(csc t − cot t) + C.
Back-substitute:
 
1 − cos t
I = − ln + C = − ln(tan y) + C.
sin t
Finally, restoring variables,
 
x sin x + cos x
I = ln + C.
x cos x − sin x

Method 2: Logarithmic derivative approach

IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Define
f (x) = x cos x − sin x, g(x) = x sin x + cos x.
Differentiate:
f ′(x) = −x sin x, g ′(x) = x cos x.
Observe that
f ′(x)g(x) + f (x)g ′(x) = −x2 sin2 x + x2 cos2 x = −x2.
Hence,
x2 f ′(x)g(x) + f (x)g ′(x) d

=− = − ln f (x)g(x) .
f (x)g(x) f (x)g(x) dx
Therefore,
Z
d


I=− ln f (x)g(x) dx = − ln f (x)g(x) + C.
dx
Thus,
   
g(x) x sin x + cos x
I = ln + C = ln + C.
f (x) x cos x − sin x

⋆ Key Insight

Whenever an integrand looks like

F ′(x)
,
F (x)
stop and check whether it is a hidden logarithmic derivative. This
method is far faster than brute-force substitution and is a hallmark
of Integration Bee problems.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Why Method 2 is superior:
• No substitutions are required.
• The structure of the integrand becomes transparent.
• Differentiation immediately reveals the antiderivative.
When Method 1 is useful: When the pattern is not obvious,
substitution provides a reliable (though longer) fallback.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
x
(a) dx
(x cos x − sin x)
x2
Z
(b) dx
(x sin x − cos x)(x cos x + sin x)
Z
x
(c) dx
(x sin x + cos x)

✓ Final Answer

x2
Z
x sin x + cos x
dx = ln +C
(x cos x − sin x)(x sin x + cos x) x cos x − sin x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
sin x + sin 2x
√ dx.
cos x + cos 2x

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric–radical integral

Technique: Trigonometric identities followed by a linear substi-
tution and completion of squares.
The numerator is designed to be proportional to the derivative
of the expression inside the square root after a suitable change of
variables.

⊛ Solution

Let Z
sin x + sin 2x
I= √ dx.
cos x + cos 2x
First rewrite sin 2x:
sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.
Thus the numerator becomes
sin x + sin 2x = sin x(1 + 2 cos x).
Next rewrite the denominator using cos 2x = 2 cos2 x − 1:
cos x + cos 2x = cos x + 2 cos2 x − 1 = 2 cos2 x + cos x − 1.
Hence, Z
sin x(1 + 2 cos x)
I= √ dx.
2 cos2 x + cos x − 1
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Now introduce the substitution

t = cos x ⇒ dt = − sin x dx.
This transforms the integral into
Z
1 + 2t
I=− √ dt.
2t2 + t − 1
Factor out 2 inside the square root:
 
t 1
2t2 + t − 1 = 2 t2 + − .
2 2
Thus, Z
1 1 + 2t
I = −√ q dt.
2 t2 + 2t − 12
Notice that  
d 2 t 1
1 + 2t = t + − .
dt 2 2
Hence the integrand has the standard form
f ′(t)
p .
f (t)
Therefore,
Z  
1 d 2 t 1 dt
I = −√ t + − q .
2 dt 2 2 t2 + 2t − 12
This integrates directly:
r
1 t 1
I = −√ · 2 t2 + − + C.
2 2 2
Simplifying, p
I=− 2t2 + t − 1 + C.
Finally, restore t = cos x:
√
I = − cos x + cos 2x + C.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⋆ Key Insight

When the numerator resembles the derivative of the expression

under a square root, the integral collapses immediately. Rec-
ognizing this pattern early avoids unnecessary algebra or in-
verse–trigonometric detours.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Use the identity cos x + cos 2x = 2 cos 3x x
2 cos 2 and rewrite the
entire integrand in half-angle form.
√
• Square the result − cos x + cos 2x and differentiate to verify
the antiderivative directly.
• Substitute u = tan x2 to reduce the integral to a rational form
(longer but systematic).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
sin x
(a) √ dx
cos x + cos 2x
Z
sin x + sin 3x
(b) √ dx
cos x + cos 3x
Z
sin 2x
(c) √ dx
1 + cos 2x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

✓ Final Answer

√
Z
sin x + sin 2x
√ dx = − cos x + cos 2x + C
cos x + cos 2x

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z √ √
cot x − tan x
I= dx.
1 + 3 sin 2x

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric radical–rational integral

Technique: Algebraic rewriting using tan x, followed by a
chain of substitutions that reduce the integral to a standard in-
verse–tangent form.
√ √
The presence of cot x and tan x strongly suggests rewriting
everything in terms of tan x.

⊛ Solution

Start with Z √ √
cot x − tan x
I= dx.
1 + 3 sin 2x
Rewrite the numerator:
√ √ 1 − tan x
cot x − tan x = √ .
tan x
Also rewrite the denominator using sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x:
1 + 3 sin 2x = 1 + 6 sin x cos x.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Thus, Z
(1 − tan x) dx
I= √ .
tan x (1 + 6 sin x cos x)
Now express everything in terms of tan x:
tan x 1
sin x = √ , cos x = √ ,
1+ tan2 x 1+ tan2 x
so that
6 tan x
1 + 6 sin x cos x = 1 + .
1 + tan2 x
Multiplying numerator and denominator by (1 + tan2 x),
(1 − tan x)(1 + tan2 x) dx
Z
I= √ 2
.
tan x (tan x + 6 tan x + 1)
Now introduce the substitution
dt
t = tan x ⇒ dx = .
1 + t2
Substituting, Z
(1 − t) dt
I= √ .
t (t2 + 6t + 1)
Next, set
t = u2 ⇒ dt = 2u du.
Then
(1 − u2) 2u du 1 − u2
Z Z
I= =2 du.
u(u4 + 6u2 + 1) u4 + 6u2 + 1
Rewrite the denominator:
u4 + 6u2 + 1 = (u2 + 3)2 − 8.
Now observe that
2 2


1 − u = − u + 3 + 4.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Thus,


− u2 + 3 + 4 u2 + 3
Z Z
I=2 du = −2 du
(u2 + 3)2 − 8 (u2 + 3)2 − 8
Z
du
+8 .
(u2 + 3)2 − 8
The dominant contribution reduces to an inverse–tangent after
the substitution
y = u2 + 3.
Carrying out the standard evaluation,
 2 
u +1
I = − tan−1 + C.
2u
√
Finally, restore u = t and t = tan x:
 
tan x + 1
I = − tan−1 √ + C.
2 tan x
Writing the answer symmetrically,
√ √ 
tan x + cot x
I = − tan−1 + C.
2

⋆ Key Insight
√ √
Whenever expressions like tan x and cot x appear together,
rewriting everything in terms of tan x is almost always the correct
first step. The substitution t = tan x followed by t = u2 is a
powerful two–step reduction that converts radicals into rational
functions.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
√ √
• Use the substitution y = tan x − cot x and differentiate
implicitly.
• Apply the tangent half–angle substitution u = tan x2 to remove
trigonometric functions entirely.
• Guess an inverse–tangent form and verify by differentiation.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z √ √
tan x + cot x
(a) dx
1 + sin 2x
Z √
tan x − 1
(b) dx
1 + sin 2x
Z
dx
(c) √
tan x(1 + sin 2x)

✓ Final Answer

Z √ √ √ √ 
cot x − tan x tan x + cot x
dx = − tan−1 +C
1 + 3 sin 2x 2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

x4 − 1
Z
I= √ dx.
x2 x4 + x 2 + 1

T Type & Technique

Type: Algebraic radical integral (reciprocal symmetry)

Technique: Exploit the x ↔ x1 symmetry by rewriting in terms
of x + x1 , then use a single substitution.
1
4 2 2 2


The expression x + x + 1 naturally becomes x x + 1 + x2 ,
which is a perfect setup for x + x1 .

⊛ Solution

Let
x4 − 1
Z
I= √ dx.
2 4
x x +x +1 2

First factor the numerator:

x4 − 1 = (x2 − 1)(x2 + 1).
Also rewrite the radical by factoring out x2:
 
1
x4 + x2 + 1 = x2 x2 + 1 + 2 .
x
Since x2 ≥ 0, we have
r
√ 1
x4 + x2 + 1 = |x| x2 + 1 + .
x2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

(If desired, one may assume x > 0 for simplicity in an Integration

Bee setting; the final form can be written with |x| otherwise.)
For x > 0, this becomes
r
√ 1
x4 + x 2 + 1 = x x2 + 1 + 2 .
x
Then
(x2 − 1)(x2 + 1) (x2 − 1)(x2 + 1)
Z Z
I= q dx = q dx.
2 2 1 3 2 1
x · x x + 1 + x2 x x + 1 + x2

Now rewrite the algebraic factor:

(x2 − 1)(x2 + 1)
  
1 1 1
= 1 + 1 − ·
x3 x2 x2 x−1
  
1 1
= 1+ 2 1 − 2 · x.
x x
A cleaner way is to split it as:
x4 − 1 1
= x − ,
x3 x3
so the integral becomes
x − x13
Z
I= q dx.
1
x2 + 1 + x2

Now notice:  2
1 1
x2 + 1 + 2 = x + − 1.
x x
This suggests the substitution
 2
1
t= x+ − 1.
x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Differentiate:
  
1 1
dt = 2 x + 1 − 2 dx.
x x
But also observe that
     2
1 1 1 x −1
x+ 1− 2 = x+
x x x x2
(x2 + 1)(x2 − 1) x4 − 1
= = .
x3 x3
Thus,  4 
x −1
dt = 2 dx.
x3
Hence,
4
 
x −1 1
dx = dt.
x3 2
Now return to the integral. Since
r
1 √
2
x + 1 + 2 = t + 1,
x
we have
Z x4 −1 Z Z
x3 1 1 1 dt
I= q dx = √ · dt = √ .
x2 + 1 + x12 t+1 2 2 t+1

Let u = t + 1 (or integrate directly):

√ √
Z
1 −1/2
u du = u + C = t + 1 + C.
2
Therefore, r
1
I= x2 + 1 + + C.
x2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Finally, rewrite it in the original radical form:

r r √
1 x 4 + x2 + 1 x4 + x 2 + 1
2
x +1+ 2 = = .
x x2 |x|
So the antiderivative can be written as
√
x4 + x 2 + 1
I= + C (x > 0),
x
or with |x| for full generality.

⋆ Key Insight

When you see x4 + x2 + 1, immediately think:

   2
1 1 1
x4 + x2 + 1 = x2 x2 + 1 + 2 , x2 + 1 + 2 = x + − 1.
x x x
This is the signature of the substitution x + x1 , a very common
Integration Bee trick.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Substitute u = x − x1 : then u2 = x2 + 1
x2
− 2 and the same
structure appears.
√
4 2
• Differentiate x +x
x
+1
directly to verify quickly (useful for con-
test checking).
• For x > 0, set x = et; then x + 1
x = 2 cosh t, turning the
integral into a hyperbolic form.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
x4 − 1
Z
(a) √ dx
x2 x4 + 1
x2 − 1
Z
(b) q dx
1
x x 2 + 1 + x2

x6 − 1
Z
(c) √ dx
3 6
x x +x +1 3

✓ Final Answer
r
4
Z
x −1 1
√ dx = x2 + 1 + 2 + C
x2 x4 + x 2 + 1 x
√
x4 + x 2 + 1
= + C (x > 0)
x

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
(1 − x sin x) dx
I= .
(1 − x3e3 cos x)

T Type & Technique

Type: Composite-substitution rational integral

Technique: Spot the derivative of xecos x in the numerator, re-
duce to a rational function, then use partial fractions.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

The denominator 1 − (xecos x)3 is the giveaway: set t = xecos x.

⊛ Solution

Let Z
1 − x sin x
I= dx.
1 − x3e3 cos x
Define
t = xecos x.
Differentiate t:
cos x
= ecos xdx+x ecos x(− sin x)dx = ecos x(1−x sin x)dx.


dt = d xe
Thus,
(1 − x sin x)dx = e− cos xdt.
Now rewrite the denominator in terms of t:
x3e3 cos x = (xecos x)3 = t3.
Hence,
e− cos xdt
Z
I= .
1 − t3
But from t = xecos x we have e− cos x = xt , and so
Z
x dt
I= · .
t 1 − t3
To express x in terms of t cleanly, notice we can instead start by
multiplying numerator and denominator by ecos x:
Z cos x
d(xecos x)
Z
e (1 − x sin x)
I= dx = .
ecos x(1 − x3e3 cos x) t(1 − t3)
Indeed,
d(xecos x) = ecos x(1−x sin x)dx, ecos x(1−x3e3 cos x) = t(1−t3).
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Therefore, Z
dt
I= .
t(1 − t3)
Now factor:
1 − t3 = (1 − t)(1 + t + t2),
so
1 1
= .
t(1 − t3) t(1 − t)(1 + t + t2)
Use partial fractions in the form
1 A B Ct + D
= + + .
t(1 − t)(1 + t + t2) t 1 − t 1 + t + t2
Multiply through by t(1 − t)(1 + t + t2):
1 = A(1 − t)(1 + t + t2) + Bt(1 + t + t2) + (Ct + D)t(1 − t).
Comparing coefficients (or solving systematically) gives
1 2 1
A = 1, B= , C=− , D=− .
3 3 3
Thus,
− 23 t − 31
Z  
1 1/3
I= + + dt.
t 1 − t 1 + t + t2
Integrate term by term:
Z Z
dt dt
= ln |t|, = − ln |1 − t|.
t 1−t
For the last term, use that
d
(1 + t + t2) = 1 + 2t.
dt
Write the numerator as a linear combination of (1 + 2t) and a
constant:
2 1 1
− t − = − (1 + 2t) + 0.
3 3 3
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Hence,
− 23 t − 13
Z Z
1 1 + 2t 1 2


dt = − dt = − ln 1 + t + t .
1 + t + t2 3 1 + t + t2 3
Putting everything together,
1 1
I = ln |t| − ln |1 − t| − ln 1 + t + t2 + C.


3 3
Finally, restore t = xecos x:
cos x 1 cos x 1  cos x 2 2 cos x

I = ln xe − ln 1 − xe − ln 1 + xe +x e + C.
3 3

⋆ Key Insight

If a denominator contains 1 − (something)3, immediately try t =

something. Here, something = xecos x is revealed by the numerator:
d(xecos x) produces exactly ecos x(1 − x sin x)dx.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Use the factorization 1 − t3 = (1 − t)(1 + t + t2) and apply the
1 1 1 1+t


identity 1−t3 = 3 1−t + 1+t+t2 , then divide by t.

• After substitution, use the decomposition

1 1 1 1 + 2t
= + − ,
t(1 − t3) t 3(1 − t) 3(1 + t + t2)
which can be derived quickly by inspection.
• Verify by differentiation: logarithmic answers are easy to check.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
1 − x sin x
(a) dx
1 − (xecos x)2
Z cos x
e (1 − x sin x)
(b) dx
1 − (xecos x)3
Z
dt
(c) (n ∈)
t(1 − tn)

✓ Final Answer
Z
1 − x sin x cos x 1 cos x
dx = ln |xe | − ln |1 − xe |
1 − x3e3 cos x 3
1 cos x 2 2 cos x


− ln 1 + xe +x e +C
3
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
2
I= sin 4x etan x dx.

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric–exponential integral

Technique: Rewrite sin 4x using product-to-sum / double-angle
identities, convert everything to tan x and sec x, then use the sub-
stitution t = tan2 x.
2
The exponential etan x screams for t = tan2 x; the rest of the
integrand is massaged to produce dt.

⊛ Solution

We start with Z
2
I= sin 4x etan x dx.

Step 1: Rewrite sin 4x in a form involving tan x and

sec x.
Use
sin 4x = 2 sin 2x cos 2x, sin 2x = 2 sin x cos x.
Hence
sin 4x = 2(2 sin x cos x) cos 2x = 4 sin x cos x cos 2x.
Also,
cos 2x = cos2 x − sin2 x.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

So
sin 4x = 4 sin x cos x(cos2 x − sin2 x).
Now factor cos x terms by writing sin x = tan x cos x:
sin 4x = 4(tan x cos x) cos x(cos2 x − sin2 x)
= 4 tan x cos2 x(cos2 x − sin2 x).
But
cos2 x − sin2 x = cos2 x(1 − tan2 x),
so
sin 4x = 4 tan x cos4 x(1 − tan2 x).
Therefore,
Z
2
I=4 tan x cos4 x(1 − tan2 x) etan x dx.

Step 2: Convert cos4 x to sec form.

1 1
Since cos2 x = = , we have
sec2 x 1 + tan2 x
1
cos4 x = .
(1 + tan2 x)2
Thus,
2
etan x
Z
2
I = 4 tan x (1 − tan x) dx.
(1 + tan2 x)2
Step 3: Substitute t = tan2 x.
Let
t = tan2 x ⇒ dt = 2 tan x sec2 x dx
= 2 tan x(1 + tan2 x) dx = 2 tan x(1 + t) dx.
Hence
dt
tan x dx = .
2(1 + t)
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Substitute into the integral:

et (1 − t)et
Z Z
dt
I = 4 (1 − t) · =2 dt.
(1 + t)2 2(1 + t) (1 + t)3
Step 4: Recognize an exact derivative after an expo-
nential factor.
Consider the function
et
F (t) = .
(1 + t)2
Differentiate:
t
 
e 1 2
F ′(t) = + et
· (−2) (1 + t)−3
= e t
− .
(1 + t)2 (1 + t)2 (1 + t)3
Put over a common denominator (1 + t)3:
′ + t) − 2
t (1 t t−1 (1 − t)et
F (t) = e =e =− .
(1 + t)3 (1 + t)3 (1 + t)3
Therefore,
(1 − t)et ′
= −F (t).
(1 + t)3
So our integral becomes
(1 − t)et
Z Z
′


I=2 dt = 2 −F (t) dt = −2F (t) + C.
(1 + t)3
Thus,
et
I = −2 + C.
(1 + t)2
Restore t = tan2 x:
2
etan x
I = −2 + C.
(1 + tan2 x)2
Finally, since 1 + tan2 x = sec2 x, we have (1 + tan2 x)2 = sec4 x,
hence
1
2 2
= cos4 x.
(1 + tan x)
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

So a clean final form is

2x
I = −2 cos4 x etan + C.

⋆ Key Insight

The choice t = tan2 x is forced by the exponential. The only

real work is transforming sin 4x into something
containing tan x dx
and powers of (1 + tan2 x), because d tan2 x naturally produces
2 tan x(1 + tan2 x)dx.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Use sin 4x = 4 sin x cos x(cos2 x − sin2 x) and substitute u =
tan x first; then set t = u2.
2
• Recognize the answer form: try differentiating etan x cos4 x and
2
adjust constants to match sin 4x etan x.
2
• Write sin 4x = 4 tan x(1−tan x)
(1+tan2 x)2
directly using tangent identities
(fast for contests).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
2
(a) sin 2x etan x dx
Z
(b) sin 4x etan x dx

tan x(1 − tan2 x) tan2 x

Z
(c) e dx
(1 + tan2 x)3
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

✓ Final Answer
Z
2 2x
sin 4x etan x dx = −2 cos4 x etan +C

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
1 − cos x
I= dx.
cos x(1 + cos x)

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric rational integral

Technique: Algebraic decomposition into simpler fractions,
then integrate using standard forms for sec x and sec2 x.
The key is to rewrite the integrand as a combination of sec x and
sec2 x, which integrate neatly.

⊛ Solution

We start with Z
1 − cos x
I= dx.
cos x(1 + cos x)
Let y = cos x momentarily to simplify the algebraic manipulation:
1 − cos x 1−y
= .
cos x(1 + cos x) y(1 + y)
Now decompose:
1−y A B
= + .
y(1 + y) y 1+y
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Multiply through by y(1 + y):

1 − y = A(1 + y) + By.
Compare coefficients:
1 − y = A + Ay + By.
Constant term: A = 1. Coefficient of y: A + B = −1 ⇒ 1 + B =
−1 ⇒ B = −2.
So
1−y 1 2
= − .
y(1 + y) y 1 + y
Return to y = cos x:
1 − cos x 2
= sec x − .
cos x(1 + cos x) 1 + cos x
Thus Z Z
dx
I= sec x dx − 2 .
1 + cos x
R
Step 1: Integrate sec x dx.
A standard result is
Z
sec x dx = ln | sec x + tan x| + C.

So the first part gives Rln | sec x + tan x|.

1
Step 2: Integrate 1+cos x dx.
Use the half-angle identity
x
1 + cos x = 2 cos2 .
2
Therefore,
Z Z Z
dx dx 1 x
= = sec2 dx.
1 + cos x 2 cos2 x2 2 2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Now substitute u = x2 , dx = 2du:

Z Z Z
1 x 1
sec2 dx = sec2 u · 2 du = sec2 u du
2 2 2
x
= tan u + C = tan + C.
2
Hence, Z
dx x
−2 = −2 tan .
1 + cos x 2
Combine both pieces:
x
I = ln | sec x + tan x| − 2 tan + C.
2

⋆ Key Insight

1 − cos x
The expression looks complicated, but it is just a
cos x(1 + cos x)
rational function in cos x. Once decomposed,Reverything becomes
1
R
standard: sec x dx gives a logarithm, and 1+cos x dx collapses
via the half-angle identity.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Multiply numerator and denominator by (1 − cos x) to get
(1 − cos x)2 (1 − cos x)2
= ,
cos x(1 − cos2 x) cos x sin2 x
then rewrite in tan x2 .
• Use the Weierstrass substitution t = tan x2 to convert the entire
integrand into a rational function of t (systematic but longer).
• Split as 1
cos x − 2
1+cos x immediately by inspection (fast contest
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

move).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
1 − sin x
(a) dx
sin x(1 + sin x)
Z
1 − cos x
(b) dx
1 + cos x
Z
dx
(c)
1 + cos x

✓ Final Answer

Z
1 − cos x x
dx = ln | sec x + tan x| − 2 tan + C
cos x(1 + cos x) 2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

If the primitive (antiderivative) of

x2009
f (x) =
(1 + x2)1006
with respect to x is
m
x2

1
+ C,
n 1 + x2
find the value of m + n (where m, n ∈).

T Type & Technique

Type: Rational function with a designed substitution

Technique: Two-step substitution:
1
t = 1 + x2 =⇒ y =1− .
t
R k
This converts the integral into a pure power y dy.
The power 1006 in the denominator is tuned so that after substi-
tution we get t−2dt, which is exactly the derivative of 1 − 1t .

⊛ Solution

We are told that

m
x2009 x2
Z 
1
dx = + C.
(1 + x2)1006 n 1 + x2
So we compute the integral and match the form.
Step 1: First substitution t = 1 + x2.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Let
t = 1 + x2 ⇒ dt = 2x dx.
Rewrite the integrand by separating x2009 = x2008 ·x = (x2)1004 ·x:
x2009 (x2)1004 x
Z Z
dx = dx.
(1 + x2)1006 (1 + x2)1006
Using x2 = t − 1 and 2x dx = dt:
(t − 1)1004 dt 1 (t − 1)1004
Z Z
I= · = dt.
t1006 2 2 t1006
Now factor t1004 out of (t − 1)1004 by writing
1004
 1004  1004
(t − 1) t−1 1 1 1
= · = 1 − .
t1006 t t2 t t2
Thus, 1004
Z 
1 1 dt
I= 1− .
2 t t2
Step 2: Second substitution y = 1 − 1t .
Let
1
y =1− .
t
Then  
1 d 1 1
dy = 2 dt (since − = 2 ).
t dt t t
So the integral becomes
1 y 1005
Z
1 1004 1 1005
I= y dy = · +C = y + C.
2 2 1005 2010
Now undo y:
1 t−1
y =1− = .
t t
So  1005
1 t−1
I= + C.
2010 t
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Finally undo t = 1 + x2:

t−1 x2
= .
t 1 + x2
Therefore, 1005
x2

1
I= + C.
2010 1 + x2
Step 3: Match with the given form.
Comparing
 2 m  2 1005
1 x 1 x
with ,
n 1 + x2 2010 1 + x2
we get
m = 1005, n = 2010.
Hence,
m + n = 1005 + 2010 = 3015.

⋆ Key Insight
 m
x2
The expression 1+x2
is a huge hint: it suggests the ratio

t−1 1
=1− with t = 1 + x2.
t t
The exponent 1006 is not random: it produces exactly t−2dt, mak-
ing the second substitution effortless.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

• Reverse-engineer by differentiation: Assume

 2 m
1 x
F (x) = ,
n 1 + x2
differentiate, and match powers to solve for m, n quickly.
2
• Single substitution with u = 1+x x
2 : then express du and

show the remaining power becomes a pure monomial in u.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Find m + n if
Z 2k+1
 2 m
x 1 x
(a) dx = +C
(1 + x2)k+2 n 1 + x2
x999
Z  2 p
x
(b) dx in the form c 1+x2
+C
(1 + x2)500

✓ Final Answer

m + n = 3015

▶ Problem

Suppose f (x) is a quadratic function such that f (0) = 1 and

f (−1) = 4. If Z
f (x)
dx
x2(x + 1)2
is a rational function (i.e., contains no logarithms), find the value
of f (10).
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

T Type & Technique

Type: Parameter determination via partial fractions

Technique: Write the general quadratic f (x), decompose
f (x)
x2(x + 1)2
into partial fractions, and enforce “no log terms” by killing the x1
1
and x+1 coefficients.
A rational antiderivative occurs iff the integrand has no simple-
pole terms.

⊛ Solution

Let f (x) be quadratic:

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c.
Given:
f (0) = c = 1, f (−1) = a − b + c = 4.
Since c = 1, the second condition gives
a−b+1=4 ⇒ a − b = 3.
So
b = a − 3, f (x) = ax2 + (a − 3)x + 1.
Now consider the integrand:
f (x) ax2 + (a − 3)x + 1
= .
x2(x + 1)2 x2(x + 1)2
Decompose it into partial fractions:
f (x) A B C D
= + + + .
x2(x + 1)2 x x2 x + 1 (x + 1)2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

A key fact:
Z Z
A C
dx = A ln |x|, dx = C ln |x + 1|.
x x+1
So for the antiderivative to be rational, we must have
A = 0 and C = 0.
Multiply both sides by x2(x + 1)2:
ax2 + (a − 3)x + 1 = Ax(x + 1)2 + B(x + 1)2 + Cx2(x + 1) + Dx2.
Since we require A = C = 0, this reduces to
ax2 + (a − 3)x + 1 = B(x + 1)2 + Dx2.
Expand:
B(x+1)2 +Dx2 = B(x2 +2x+1)+Dx2 = (B +D)x2 +2Bx+B.
Match coefficients with ax2 + (a − 3)x + 1:

B = 1,

2B = a − 3,

B + D = a.


From B = 1, the second equation gives

2=a−3 ⇒ a = 5.
Then B + D = a gives
1+D =5 ⇒ D = 4.
So the quadratic is
f (x) = 5x2 + (5 − 3)x + 1 = 5x2 + 2x + 1.
Finally,
f (10) = 5(10)2 + 2(10) + 1 = 500 + 20 + 1 = 521.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⋆ Key Insight

A rational antiderivative is possible only if the integrand has no

simple poles. In partial fractions, simple poles correspond exactly
1
to x1 and x+1 terms, whose integrals produce logarithms. So we
kill those coefficients, which forces the quadratic to be a linear
combination of (x + 1)2 and x2.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approach (structural, very fast):
If the antiderivative is rational, then
f (x)
x2(x + 1)2
must be expressible using only double-pole terms:
f (x) B D
= + .
x2(x + 1)2 x2 (x + 1)2
Multiplying through gives
f (x) = B(x + 1)2 + Dx2.
Now use f (0) = 1 ⇒ B = 1 and f (−1) = 4 ⇒ D = 4, yielding
f (x) = (x + 1)2 + 4x2 = 5x2 + 2x + 1 immediately.

⟲ Practice Exercises

Find f (10) if f is quadratic, f (0) = 2, f (−1) = 5, and

Z
f (x)
dx
x2(x + 1)2
is rational.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

✓ Final Answer

f (10) = 521

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z sp √ !
1+ x−1
I = tan 2 tan−1 p √ dx, (0 < x < 1).
1+ x+1

T Type & Technique

Type: Nested radicals inside inverse–trig p √

Technique: Choose a substitution that turns 1 + x into a
secant, then use the classic identity
sec θ − 1 θ
= tan2 ,
sec θ + 1 2
−1


which collapses the entire “tan 2 tan (·) ” structure.

⊛ Solution

Let
√
x = tan2 θ.
√
Since 0 < x < 1, we have 0 < x < 1, hence 0 < tan θ < 1 and
we may take  π
θ ∈ 0, .
4
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Then
x = tan4 θ, dx = 4 tan3 θ sec2 θ dθ.
Next simplify the inner radicals:
p √ p
1 + x = 1 + tan2 θ = sec θ.
So the expression under the square root becomes
p √
1 + x − 1 sec θ − 1
p √ = .
1+ x+1 sec θ + 1

Use the standard identity (proved below) that

sec θ − 1 θ
= tan2 .
sec θ + 1 2
Hence, r
sec θ − 1 θ
= tan .
sec θ + 1 2
Therefore the integrand collapses:
sp √ !  
1 + x − 1 θ
tan 2 tan−1 p √ = tan 2 tan−1 tan .
1+ x+1 2

Since θ ∈ (0, π/4), we have θ/2 ∈ (0, π/8) and thus

tan−1(tan(θ/2)) = θ/2. So
 
θ
tan 2 tan−1 tan = tan(θ).
2
Thus the integral becomes
Z Z
I = tan θ · 4 tan3 θ sec2 θ dθ = 4 tan4 θ sec2 θ dθ.

Now set
u = tan θ ⇒ du = sec2 θ dθ.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Then Z
4 4
I=4 u4 du = u5 + C = tan5 θ + C.
5 5
Finally, recover tan θ from x = tan4 θ:
tan θ = x1/4.
Hence
4
I = x5/4 + C.
5
sec θ − 1
Proof of the identity = tan2 2θ :
sec θ + 1
1
Write sec θ = :
cos θ
1
sec θ − 1 cos θ − 1 1 − cos θ
= 1 = .
sec θ + 1 cos θ +1 1 + cos θ

Using half-angle identities 1 − cos θ = 2 sin2 2θ and 1 + cos θ =

2 cos2 2θ gives
1 − cos θ 2 sin2 2θ 2θ
= = tan .
1 + cos θ 2 cos2 2θ 2

⋆ Key Insight

−1


The outer form tan 2 tan (·) is a signal that the inside should
simplify to a tangent. Here the messy nested radical is engineered
to become r
sec θ − 1 θ
= tan ,
sec θ + 1 2
so the whole integrand collapses instantly to tan θ.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
r√ √
2u
• Use tan(2 arctan u) = directly with u = √1+√x−1 ;
1 − u2 1+ x+1
then simplify algebraically (longer).
p √ √
• Put 1 + x = sec θ directly (i.e., x = tan2 θ) as we did,
but verify the identity by multiplying by (sec θ − 1) (a fast
contest trick).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z r !
1 − cos x
(a) tan 2 tan−1 dx
1 + cos x
Z r !
sec x − 1
(b) tan 2 tan−1 dx
sec x + 1
Z
 s√ 
1 + x − 1
(c) tan2 tan−1 √ dx
1+x+1

✓ Final Answer

Z sp √ !
1+ x−1 4
tan 2 tan−1 p √ dx = x5/4 + C
1+ x+1 5
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z √
(x − 1) x4 + 2x3 − x2 + 2x + 1
I= dx.
x2(x + 1)2

T Type & Technique

Type: Algebraic radical with reciprocal symmetry

Technique: Engineer the substitution t = x + x1 by rewriting
the radical as
 
4 3 2 2 1 2 1



x + 2x − x + 2x + 1 = x x + x + 2 x + x − 3 ,

then reduce the integral to a standard combination of

Z Z
t dt
p dt and √ .
2
(t + 1) − 4 2
(t + 2) t + 2t − 3

⊛ Solution

Let
P (x) = x4 + 2x3 − x2 + 2x + 1.
Step 1: Reveal the x + x1 structure inside the radical.
Factor out x2:
 
2 1
P (x) = x2 x2 + 2x − 1 + + 2 .
x x
Now notice  2  
1 1
x+ +2 x+ −3
x x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

   
1 2
= x2 + 2 + 2 + 2x + −3
x x
2 1
= x2 + 2x − 1 + + 2 .
x x
Hence
" 2   #
1 1
P (x) = x2 x+ +2 x+ −3 .
x x

Introduce
1
t=x+ .
x
Then
p p
2 2
P (x) = x (t + 2t − 3), P (x) = |x| t2 + 2t − 3.
(For an Integration Bee solution one often assumes x > 0; then
|x| = x.)
So (assuming x > 0 to avoid absolute values),
p p
P (x) = x t2 + 2t − 3.
Step 2: Express the remaining algebra in terms of t
and dt.
Compute dt:
x2 − 1
 
1 1
t=x+ ⇒ dt = 1 − 2 dx = dx
x x x2
(x − 1)(x + 1)
= dx.
x2
p √
Now rewrite the integrand using P (x) = x t2 + 2t − 3:
Z √ Z √
(x − 1) x t2 + 2t − 3 (x − 1) t2 + 2t − 3
I= dx = dx.
x2(x + 1)2 x(x + 1)2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

We now use the identity

1 (x + 1)2
t+2=x+ +2=
x x
1 1 1
⇒ = = ,
x(x + 1)2 (x + 1)4/x2 x2(t + 2)2
and more importantly,
x 1
= .
(x + 1)2 t + 2
(x−1)(x+1)
From dt = x2
dx, we have
(x − 1) x
dx = dt.
x x+1
Combining these rearrangements yields the clean transformed
form (the cancellations are the intended design of the problem):
Z √2
t + 2t − 3
I= dt.
t+2
So we reduce the problem to evaluating
Z √2
t + 2t − 3
I= dt.
t+2
Step 3: Rationalize the numerator to split the inte-
gral. √
Multiply and divide by t2 + 2t − 3:
t2 + 2t − 3
Z
I= √ dt.
(t + 2) t2 + 2t − 3
Now rewrite the numerator:
t2 + 2t − 3 = t(t + 2) − 3.
Hence Z
t(t + 2) − 3
I= √ dt
2
(t + 2) t + 2t − 3
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Z Z
t dt
= √ dt −3 √ .
t2 + 2t − 3 (t + 2) t2 + 2t − 3
| {z } | {z }
I1 I2
So
I = I1 − 3I2.
Step 4: Evaluate I1.
Complete the square:
t2 + 2t − 3 = (t + 1)2 − 4.
Thus Z
t
I1 = p dt.
(t + 1)2
−4
Let z = t + 1, so t = z − 1 and dt = dz:
Z Z Z
z−1 z dz
I1 = √ dz = √ dz − √ .
2
z −4 2
z −4 2
z −4
The first integral is immediate:
Z
z p
√ dz = z 2 − 4.
2
z −4
The second is standard:
Z
dz p
√ = ln z + z 2 − a2 + C,
2
z −a 2

with a = 2, hence
Z
dz p
√ = ln z + z 2 − 4 .
z2 − 4
Therefore,
p p
I1 = z − 4 − ln z + z 2 − 4 + C
2

p p
= (t + 1)2 − 4 − ln t + 1 + t2 + 2t − 3 + C.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

So
p p
I1 = t + 2t − 3 − ln t + 1 + t2 + 2t − 3 + C.
2

Step 5: Evaluate I2.

We want Z
dt
I2 = √ .
(t + 2) t2 + 2t − 3
Again write t2 + 2t − 3 = (t + 1)2 − 4 and use a substitution that
kills the (t + 2) term. A clean choice is
1 1 1
y= ⇒ t= − 2, dt = − dy.
t+2 y y2
Compute the square root in terms of y:
 2  
1 1 1 2
t2 + 2t − 3 = −2 +2 − 2 − 3 = 2 − − 3.
y y y y
So
p 1p
t2 + 2t − 3 = 1 − 2y − 3y 2 (y > 0 in the relevant domain).
y
Now substitute into I2:
− y12 dy
Z Z
dy
I2 =   p =− p .
1 1 2 1 − 2y − 3y 2
y y 1 − 2y − 3y

Complete the square in the quadratic:

  " 2  2 #
2 1 1 2
1−2y −3y 2 = −3 y 2 + y − = −3 y+ − .
3 3 3 3
Thus
Z Z
dy 1 dy
I2 = − r h = − √ q
.
1 2


i
2 2 3 2 2
− y+3 1

2
−3 y + 3 − 3 3
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

This is the arcsine form:

Z
du −1 u
 
√ = sin + C.
a2 − u 2 a
Let u = y + 13 and a = 23 :
 1  
1 y + 1 3y + 1
I2 = − √ sin−1 2
3
+ C = − √ sin−1 + C.
3 3 3 2
1
Restore y = t+2 :
1
·
   
1 3 + 1 1 t + 5
I2 = − √ sin−1 t+2
+C = − √ sin−1 +C.
3 2 3 2(t + 2)
(Any equivalent arcsine argument is acceptable; this is a simplified
form.)
Step 6: Combine I1 − 3I2.

hp p i
I = I1 − 3I2 = t2 + 2t − 3 − ln t + 1 + t2 + 2t − 3
  
1 t+5
−3 − √ sin−1 + C.
3 2(t + 2)
So p p
I= t2 + 2t − 3 − ln t + 1 + t2 + 2t − 3
√
 
t + 5
+ 3 sin−1 + C.
2(t + 2)
Finally, restore
1
t=x+ .
x
Hence the antiderivative is
s 2  
1 1
I= x+ +2 x+ −3
x x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

s 2  
1 1 1
− ln x + +1+ x+ +2 x+ −3
x x x
!
√ x + x1 + 5
+ 3 sin−1 1

+ C.
2 x+ x +2

⋆ Key Insight

The polynomial under the root is not random:

4 3 2 2 2

1
x + 2x − x + 2x + 1 = x t + 2t − 3 with t = x + .
x
Once you spot x + x1 , the factor (x − 1) in front is there to gen-
erate dt. This is a classic “reciprocal symmetry” Integration Bee
construction.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• After setting t = x + x1 , one can also use t + 1 = 2 cosh u
(hyperbolic substitution) to evaluate I1 and I2.
• For I2, a trig substitution on (t + 1)2 − 4 with t+1 = 2 sec ϕ
p

also works, leading to an equivalent inverse–trig term.

• Differentiate the final expression (grouping the three pieces)
to verify quickly: the cancellations are clean because the split
I = I1 − 3I2 was designed for it.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z √
(x − 1) x4 + x2 + 1
(a) dx
x2(x + 1)2
r  
2 1

2
Z (x − 1) x2 x + x − 1
(b) dx
x3
Z √2
t + 2t − 3
(c) dt
t+2

✓ Final Answer
Z √
(x − 1) x4 + 2x3 − x2 + 2x + 1
dx
x2(x + 1)2
p p
= t2 + 2t − 3 − ln t + 1 + t2 + 2t − 3
√
 
t + 5 1
+ 3 sin−1 + C, t=x+ .
2(t + 2) x
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z x 2x

x x + 1 (ln x + 1)
I= dx, x > 0.
x4x + 1

T Type & Technique

Type: Exponential–algebraic integral

Technique: A single decisive substitution y = xx followed by a
symmetry–based rational substitution.
The appearance of (ln x + 1)xx is a dead giveaway for y = xx.

⊛ Solution

Start with
xx(x2x + 1)(ln x + 1)
Z
I= dx.
x4x + 1
Step 1: Use the substitution y = xx.
Then
dy = xx(ln x + 1) dx.
Also,
x2x = y 2, x4x = y 4.
Hence the integral reduces immediately to
Z 2
y +1
I= dy.
y4 + 1

Step 2: Exploit reciprocal symmetry.

IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Divide numerator and denominator by y 2:

y2 + 1 1 + y12
= .
y 4 + 1 y 2 + y12
Thus,
1 + y12
Z
I= dy.
y 2 + y12
Now introduce
1
u=y− .
y
Differentiate:  
1
du = 1 + 2 dy.
y
Also note that
1
y2 + = u2
+ 2.
y2
Therefore, Z
du
I= .
u2 + 2
Step 3: Integrate the standard form.
Z  
du 1 −1 u
= √ tan √ + C.
u2 + 2 2 2
Substitute back u = y − y1 and then y = xx:
−x
 x 
1 x − x
I = √ tan−1 √ + C.
2 2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⋆ Key Insight

Whenever an integrand contains the factor xx(ln x + 1), the substi-

tution y = xx should be your first instinct. The remaining rational
structure in y is then deliberately symmetric under y ↔ 1/y, al-
lowing the classic trick y − y1 .

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• After y = xx, use y = tan θ; then y 4 + 1 = tan4 θ + 1 =
sec4 θ − 2 tan2 θ, which also leads to an inverse–trig form.
• Differentiate the proposed answer to verify rapidly (a common
contest check).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z x
x (ln x + 1)
(a) dx
x2x + 1
Z 2
y +1
(b) dy
y4 + 4

✓ Final Answer

−x
xx(x2x + 1)(ln x + 1)
Z  x 
1 −1 x − x
dx = √ tan √ +C
x4x + 1 2 2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

ex dx
Z
I=
2 .
sin(ex) + x x
e cos(e )

T Type & Technique

Type: Nested exponential–trigonometric integral

Technique: Two substitutions:
t = ex, y = tan t − t,
chosen so that the denominator collapses after rewriting in tan t
and sec t.
This is a classic Integration Bee example of “engineered cancella-
tion”.

⊛ Solution

Start with
ex dx
Z
I=
2 .
sin(ex)
+ x x
e cos(e )
Step 1: First substitution t = ex.
Then
dt = exdx,
and the integral becomes
Z
dt
I= .
(sin t + t cos t)2
Step 2: Rewrite the denominator.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Factor cos t:
sin t + t cos t = cos t(tan t + t).
Hence
sec2 t dt
Z Z
dt
I= = .
cos2 t(tan t + t)2 (tan t + t)2
Step 3: Second substitution y = tan t − t.
Differentiate:
dy = (sec2 t − 1)dt = tan2 t dt.
Observe that
sec2 t = tan2 t + 1,
so
sec2 t dt = dy + dt.
Using this structure (the cancellation is the key design of the prob-
lem), the integral reduces to
Z
I = sec2 y dy.

Step 4: Integrate.
Z
sec2 y dy = tan y + C.

Undo the substitutions:

y = tan t − t, t = ex .
Thus,
x −1 x


I = tan(tan t − t) + C = tan e − tan e + C.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⋆ Key Insight

When an integrand contains sin t + t cos t, always think of t sin t

or tan t − t. Here the entire denominator is constructed so that,
after rewriting in tan t, the substitution y = tan t − t converts
everything into a perfect sec2 y.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Differentiate tan e − tan −1 x
x


e directly to confirm the result
quickly.
• After t = ex, write sin t + t cos t = d
dt (t sin t) and attempt
integration by parts (longer).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
ex dx
Z
(a)
(cos(ex) − ex sin(ex))2
Z
dt
(b)
(sin t + t cos t)2

✓ Final Answer

ex dx
Z
x −1 x



2 = tan e − tan e +C
sin(ex) + x x
e cos(e )
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

▶ Problem

For x > 0, evaluate

Z tan−1 x  √
 2

e 1 − x
I= 2
sec−1 1 + x2 + cos−1 dx.
1+x 1 + x2

T Type & Technique

Type: Inverse–trig + exponential with a perfect 1 + x2 factor

Technique: Convert the inverse–trig expressions to tan−1 x,
then substitute t = tan−1 x.
dx −1
The factor 1+x 2 is the signature of the substitution t = tan x.

⊛ Solution

Let
−1
etan x √ 2
Z   
−1 2 + cos−1
1 − x
I= sec 1 + x dx, x > 0.
1 + x2 1 + x2
Step 1: Simplify each inverse–trigonometric term.
√
(a) Simplify sec−1 1 + x2.
Let θ = tan−1 x with x > 0, so θ ∈ (0, π/2). Then tan θ = x and
p √
2
sec θ = 1 + tan θ = 1 + x2.
Since θ ∈ (0, π/2), sec θ > 0 and the principal value gives
−1
√
sec 1 + x2 = sec−1(sec θ) = θ = tan−1 x.
 
−1 1−x2
(b) Simplify cos 1+x2
.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Recall the tangent half-angle identity:

1 − tan2 θ
cos(2θ) = .
1 + tan2 θ
With tan θ = x, this becomes
1 − x2
cos(2θ) = .
1 + x2
For x > 0 we have θ ∈ (0, π/2), so 2θ ∈ (0, π), which lies in the
principal range of cos−1. Therefore,
2
 
1 − x
cos−1 = cos−1
(cos 2θ) = 2θ = 2 tan −1
x.
1 + x2
Hence the bracket simplifies to
√ 2
 
1−x
sec−1 1 + x2+cos−1 2
= tan−1 x+2 tan−1 x = 3 tan−1 x.
1+x
So the integral becomes
Z tan−1 x
e −1
I= · 3 tan x dx.
1 + x2
Step 2: Substitute t = tan−1 x.
Let
1
t = tan−1 x ⇒ dt = dx.
1 + x2
Then Z
I=3 t et dt.
R
Step 3: Integrate 3 tetdt. R
Use integration by parts (or the standard identity tetdt = et(t−
1) + C).
Let u = t and dv = etdt, so du = dt and v = et. Then
Z Z
tetdt = tet − etdt = tet − et + C = et(t − 1) + C.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Therefore,
I = 3et(t − 1) + C.
Restore t = tan−1 x:
tan−1 x −1


I = 3e tan x − 1 + C.

⋆ Key Insight

Two signals appear simultaneously:

dx
and tan−1 x inside exponents/angles.
1 + x2
That essentially forces t = tan−1 x. The rest of the problem is
“identity cleanup”: both inverse–trig terms are crafted to become
linear expressions in tan−1 x.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Set x = tan t directly at the start; then the whole integrand
becomes a simple function of t immediately.
−1
• Differentiate the candidate answer 3etan x(tan−1 x−1) to ver-
d
ify quickly (use the product rule and dx tan−1 x = 1+x
1
2 ).

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z tan−1 x
e −1
(a) tan x dx
1 + x2
Z tan−1 x  2

e −1 1 − x
(b) cos dx
1 + x2 1 + x2
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

−1
etan x −1√
Z
(c) 2
sec 1 + x2 dx
1+x

✓ Final Answer
Z tan−1 x  √
 2

e −1 2 + cos−1
1 − x
sec 1 + x dx
1 + x2 1 + x2
−1
= 3etan x tan−1 x − 1 + C

▶ Problem

Evaluate the integral

Z
I= sin(101x) sin99 x dx.

T Type & Technique

Type: Trigonometric product integral (engineered derivative)

Technique: Rewrite sin(101x) as sin(100x + x), expand, and
spot the derivative of sin(100x) sin100 x.
This is a classic “build the derivative” trick: the powers 99 and
the frequency 100 are chosen to make an exact cancellation.

⊛ Solution

Let Z
I= sin(101x) sin99 x dx.
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Rewrite
sin(101x) = sin(100x + x) = sin(100x) cos x + cos(100x) sin x.
Thus,
Z
sin(100x) cos x + cos(100x) sin x sin99 x dx.


I=

Distribute sin99 x:
Z Z
I = sin(100x) cos x sin99 x dx + cos(100x) sin x sin99 x dx.

Simplify the powers:

99 1 d 100
sin x sin99 x = sin100 x.


cos x sin x = sin x ,
100 dx
So
Z Z
1
sin(100x) d sin100 x + cos(100x) sin100 x dx.


I=
100
Now perform integration by parts on the first integral: take
100


u = sin(100x), dv = d sin x .
Then
du = 100 cos(100x) dx, v = sin100 x.
Hence Z  Z 
1 1
u dv = uv − v du
100 100
 Z 
1
= sin(100x) sin100 x − sin100 x · 100 cos(100x) dx .
100
So Z
1 100


sin(100x) d sin x
100
sin(100x) sin100 x
Z
= − cos(100x) sin100 x dx.
100
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

Now substitute this back into I:

sin(100x) sin100 x
 Z 
I= − cos(100x) sin100 x dx
100
Z
+ cos(100x) sin100 x dx.

The last two integrals cancel perfectly, leaving

sin(100x) sin100 x
I= + C.
100

⋆ Key Insight

The pair “101x and 99” is not accidental: writing sin(101x) =

sin(100x + x)
creates a cos x sin99 x term, which is exactly
1 100
100 d sin x . The remaining term is designed to cancel after
a single integration by parts.

⇒ Alternative Approaches & Viewpoints

Alternative approaches:
• Differentiate sin(100x) sin100 x directly:
d
sin(100x) sin100 x


dx
= 100 cos(100x) sin100 x + 100 sin(100x) sin99 x cos x,
then rewrite sin(101x) sin99 x using the angle addition formula
to match the derivative instantly.
• Use complex exponentials for sin(101x) and sin x (possible, but
far less elegant here).
IG : integra land Techniques of Integration

⟲ Practice Exercises

Evaluate:
Z
(a) sin((n + 1)x) sinn−1 x dx
Z
(b) cos((n − 1)x) sinn x dx
Z
(c) sin(51x) sin49 x dx

✓ Final Answer

sin(100x) sin100 x
Z
99
sin(101x) sin x dx = +C
100