UNIT III

1. What is known as Quadradrature Modulation?

In digital modulations, instead of transmitting one bit at a time, we transmit two or more
bits simultaneously. This is known as M-ary transmission. This type of transmission
results reduced channel BW. However sometimes the use two quadrature carriers for
modulation. This process of transmitting 2 quadrature carries for modulation is known as
quadrature modulation.

2. What are the design characteristics of digital modulation scheme?

i. Maximum data rate,
ii. Minimum transmitted power,
iii. Maximum channel BW,
iv. Maximum resistance to interfering signals,
v. Minimum ckt complexity.

3. Classify the types of Digital modulation techniques:

Digital Modulation

Coherent Digital modulation Non-coherent digital modulation

4. What are coherent digital modulation techniques?

Coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques which employ coherent
detection. In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase
locked with the carrier at the transmitter. Thus, the detection is done by correlating
received noisy signal and locally generated carrier. The coherent detections a
synchronous detection.

5. What are the non-coherent digital modulation techniques?

Non-coherent digital modulation techniques are those techniques in which the detection
process does not need receiver carrier to be phase locked with transmitter carrier. The
advantage of such type of system is that the system becomes simple. But the drawback
of such a system is that the error probability increases.

6. Give some advantage of QPSK:

i. For the same bit error rate, the BKJ required by QPSK is reduced to half as
compared to BPSK.
ii. Because of reduced BW, the information transmission rate of QPSK is higher
iii. Carrier power almost remains constant.

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7. Advantages of MSK as compared to QPSK:
Advantages:

1. The MSK base band waveforms are smoother compared to QPSK

2. MSK signal have continuous phase in all the cases, whereas QPSK has abrupt phase
shift of  /2 or .
3. MSK waveform does not have amplitude variations, whereas QPSK signal have
abrupt amplitude variations.
4. The main lobe of MSK is order than that of QPSK main lobe contains around 90%
signal energy.
5. Side lobes of MSK are smaller compared to that of QPSK. Hence inter channel
interference because of side lobes is significantly large in QPSK.
6. To avoid inter channel interference due to sidelobes, QPSK needs band base filtering,
where as it is to required in MSK.
7. PB fing changes the amplitude waveform of QPSK because of abrupt changes in
phase. The problem does not exist in MSK

The distance b/w signal points is same in QPSK as well as MSK. Hence problem of error
is also same.
8. Drawbacks of MSK as compared to QPSK:
1. The BW requirement of MSK is 1.5 fb, whereas it is fb in QPSK. Actually this
cannot be said series drawback of MSK. Because power to BW ratio of MSK is more
99% of signal.
2. Power can be transmitted within the BW of 1.2 fb in MSK. While QPSK needs
around 8fb to transmit the same power.
9. Bring out the difference between coherent and noncoherent binary modulation schemes
(April /May 2005)

Coherent binary modulation Non-coherent binary modulation

1. Here the local carrier generated at 1. Here the detection process
the receiver is phase locked with does not need receiver carrier
the carrier at the transmitter. Thus to be phase locked with
detection is done by correlating transmitter carrier.
received noisy signal and locally 2. Here error probability
generated carrier. increases.
2. The coherent detection is a
synchronous detection. Here the
error probability does not
decreases

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10. What is the error probability of DPSK?(April/May2005)

The error probability of DPSK is given by

11. Write the expression for bit error rate for coherent binary FSK.
The bit error rate for coherent binary FSK is
Eb Transmitted signal energy per bit;
NO Noise density

12. In minimum shift keying what is the relation between the signal frequencies
and bit rate? (April/May 2004)
The bit rate is given by

Where
Eb Transmitted signal energy per bit;
No Noise density
13. What is QPSK? (Quadrature phase shift keying)
In QPSK two bits are combined. These two bits can represent four symbols.
Hence four phases are used for four symbols.

Phase of QPSK
Input Dibit
(Radians)
10 /4
00 3/4
01 5/4
11 7/4

14. What is FSK ?

In frequency shift keying, the frequency of the carrier is shifted according to
the binary symbol. The phase and amplitude of the carrier is un affected

If

If
F1, f2 2 different frequencies transmitted for two binary symbols

15. What is PSK?

In binary phase sift keying, phase of the carrier is shifted as per input data. Let the carrier
be,

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 when the symbol is changed, the phase of the carrier is changed by 180o

17. What is DPSK?

Differential phase –shift keying is the non-coherent version of PSK. It is differentially
coherent modulation method. It does not need a synchronous carrier at the demodulator. The
input sequency of binary bits is modified such that the next bit depends upon the previous bit.
Therefore in the receiver bits are used ot detect the present bit.

18. What are the advantages of DPSK?

i. DPSK does not need carrier at its receiver. This means that the complicated
circuitry for generation of local carrier is avoided.
ii. The bandwidth requirement of DPSK is reduced compared to that of BPSK

PART B
1. What is meant by digital modulation? What are the Digital modulation techniques?
Modulation is defined as the process by which some characteristics of a carrier is varied in
accordance with a modulating wave. In digital communications, the modulating wave
consists of binary data or an M-ary encoded version of it and the carrier is sinusoidal wave.
Different Shift keying methods that are used in digital modulation techniques are
 Amplitude shift keying [ASK]
 Frequency shift keying [FSK]
 Phase shift keying [PSK]
Fig shows different modulations

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2. What are the signal representations for the different digital modulation schemes?
1. ASK[Amplitude Shift Keying]:

In a binary ASK system symbol ‘1’ and ‘0’ are transmitted as

for symbol 1

for symbol 0

2. FSK[Frequency Shift Keying]:

In a binary FSK system symbol ‘1’ and ‘0’ are transmitted as

for symbol 1

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 for symbol 0

3. PSK[Phase Shift Keying]:

In a binary PSK system the pair of signals S1(t) and S2(t) are used to represent binary
symbol ‘1’ and ‘0’ respectively.

--------- for Symbol ‘1’

------- for Symbol ‘0’

2. Draw the Hierarchy of digital modulation techniques.

Digital Modulation Technique

Coherent Non - Coherent

Binary M - ary Hybrid Binary M - ary

(m) = 2 (m) = 2

* ASK M-ary ASK M-ary APK * ASK M-ary ASK

* FSK M-ary FSK M-ary QAM * FSK M-ary FSK
* PSK M-ary PSK * DPSK M-ary DPSK
(QPSK)

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3. Explain in detail the generation and detection of BPSK system with neat block diagrams.
Coherent Binary PSK:

Non Return to
Zero Level Product
Encoder Modulator

Binary Binary PSK Signal

Data Sequence

Fig(a) Block diagram of BPSK transmitter

x(t) x1 Decision Choose 1 if x1>0

Device

Choose 0 if x1<0
Correlator Threshold λ = 0

Fig (b) Coherent binary PSK receiver

In a Coherent binary PSK system the pair of signals S1(t) and S2(t) are used to represent
binary symbol ‘1’ and ‘0’ respectively.

--------- for Symbol ‘1’

------- for Symbol ‘0’

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 Where Eb= Average energy transmitted per bit

In the case of PSK, there is only one basic function of Unit energy which is given by

Therefore the transmitted signals are given by

A Coherent BPSK is characterized by having a signal space that is one dimensional

(N=1) with two message points (M=2)

The message point corresponding to S1(t) is located at and S2(t) is located at

To generate a binary PSK signal we have to represent the input binary sequence in polar
form with symbol ‘1’ and ‘0’ represented by constant amplitude levels of
respectively. This signal transmission encoding is performed by a NRZ level encoder. The

resulting binary wave [in polar form] and a sinusoidal carrier [whose frequency ]

are applied to a product modulator. The desired BPSK wave is obtained at the modulator output.
To detect the original binary sequence of 1’s and 0’s we apply the noisy PSK signal x(t)
to a Correlator, which is also supplied with a locally generated coherent reference signal as
shown in fig (b). The correlator output x1 is compared with a threshold of zero volt.

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 If x1 > 0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1.
If x1 < 0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 0.

4. Derive the probability of error of BPSK system.

Probability of Error Calculation ‘Or’ Bit Error rate Calculation [BER Calculation] :-
In BPSK system the basic function is given by

The signals S1(t) and S2(t) are given by

The signal space representation is as shown in fig (N=1 & M=2)

Region R2 Region R1

0
Message Point 2 Message Point 1
S2(t) S1(t)
Decision Boundary

Fig. Signal Space Representation of BPSK

The observation vector x1 is related to the received signal x(t) by

If the observation element falls in the region R1, a decision will be made in favour of
symbol ‘1’. If it falls in region R2 a decision will be made in favour of symbol ‘0’.
The error is of two types
1) Pe(0/1) i.e. transmitted as ‘1’ but received as ‘0’ and

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 2) Pe(1/0) i.e. transmitted as ‘0’ but received as ‘1’.
Error of 1st kind is given by

Assuming Gaussian Distribution

Where μ = mean value = for the transmission of symbol ‘0’

= Variance = for additive white Gaussian noise.

Threshold Value λ = 0. [Indicates lower limit in integration]

Therefore the above equation becomes

Put

Similarly

The total probability of error assuming

probability of 1’s and 0’s are equal.
]

5. Explain in detail the generation and detection of BFSK system with neat block diagrams
Coherent Binary FSK
In a binary FSK system symbol ‘1’ and ‘0’ are transmitted as

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 for symbol 1

for symbol 0

Frequency for some fixed integer nc and i=1, 2

The basic functions are given by

and

Therefore FSK is characterized by two dimensional signal space with two message points
i.e. N=2 and m=2.
The two message points are defined by the signal vector

and

Generation and Detection:-

fig a

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 fig b

fig: FSK transmitter and receiver

A binary FSK Transmitter is as shown in fig. (a). The incoming binary data
sequence is applied to on-off level encoder. The output of encoder is volts for symbol 1 and
0 volts for symbol ‘0’. When we have symbol 1 the upper channel is switched on with oscillator
frequency f1, for symbol ‘0’, because of inverter the lower channel is switched on with oscillator
frequency f2. These two frequencies are combined using an adder circuit and then transmitted.
The transmitted signal is nothing but required BFSK signal.
The detector consists of two correlators. The incoming noisy BFSK signal x(t) is
common to both correlator. The Coherent reference signal are supplied to
upper and lower correlators respectively.
The correlator outputs are then subtracted one from the other and resulting a random
vector ‘l’ (l=x1 - x2). The output ‘l’ is compared with threshold of zero volts.
If l > 0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1.
l < 0, the receiver decides in favour of symbol 0.

5. Derive the probability of error for BFSK system.

Probability of Error Calculation:-
In binary FSK system the basic functions are given by

The transmitted signals S1(t) and S2(t) are given by

for symbol 1

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 for symbol 0
Therefore Binary FSK system has 2 dimensional signal space with two messages S 1(t)
and S2(t), [N=2 , m=2] they are represented as shown in fig.

Fig. Signal Space diagram of Coherent binary FSK system.

The two message points are defined by the signal vector

and

The observation vector x1 and x2 ( output of upper and lower correlator) are related to
input signal x(t) as

and

Assuming zero mean additive white Gaussian noise with input PSD . with variance .

The new observation vector ‘l’ is the difference of two random variables x1 & x2.
l = x1 – x2
When symbol ‘1’ was transmitted x1 and x2 has mean value of 0 and respectively.
Therefore the conditional mean of random variable ‘l’ for symbol 1 was transmitted is

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Similarly for ‘0’ transmission

The total variance of random variable ‘l’ is given by

The probability of error is given by

Put

Similarly

The total probability of error = ]

Assuming 1’s & 0’s with equal probabilities

Pe=

6. Explain in detail the generation and detection of coherent binary ASK system with neat
block diagrams
BINARY ASK SYSTEM:-

ON-OFF Product
Level Modulator
Encoder 14
Binary Binary ASK
Data Sequence Signal

Fig (a) BASK transmitter

Tb
x(t) X dt
0
Decision
Device
If x > λ choose symbol 1

If x < λ choose symbol 0

Threshold λ
Fig (b) Coherent binary ASK demodulator
In Coherent binary ASK system the basic function is given by

The transmitted signals S1(t) and S2(t) are given by

The BASK system has one dimensional signal space with two messages (N=1, M=2)

Region E2 Region E1

Message
Point 2

0 Message
Point 1

Fig. (c) Signal Space representation of BASK signal

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 In transmitter the binary data sequence is given to an on-off encoder. Which gives an
output volts for symbol 1 and 0 volt for symbol 0. The resulting binary wave [in unipolar
form] and sinusoidal carrier are applied to a product modulator. The desired BASK wave
is obtained at the modulator output.
In demodulator, the received noisy BASK signal x(t) is apply to correlator with coherent
reference signal as shown in fig. (b). The correlator output x is compared with threshold λ.
If x > λ the receiver decides in favour of symbol 1.
If x < λ the receiver decides in favour of symbol 0.
6. Derive the probability of error of binary ASK system.
BER Calculation:
In binary ASK system the basic function is given by

The transmitted signals are given by

Therefore the average transmitted energy per bit

The probability of error is given by

Where ‘x’ is the observed random vector. μ = 0, because the average value for symbol ‘0’
transmission is zero (0).

assuming additive white Gaussian noise with into PSD

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 Let

similarly

The total probability of error =

7. Explain the Incoherent detection system for binary ASK signal

Fig(a). : Envelope detector for OOK BASK

Incoherent detection as used in analog communication does not require carrier for
reconstruction. The simplest form of incoherent detector is the envelope detector as shown in
figure(a). The output of envelope detector is the baseband signal. Once the baseband signal is
recovered, its samples are taken at regular intervals and compared with threshold.
If Z(t) is greater than threshold ( ) a decision will be made in favour of symbol ‘1’
If Z(t) the sampled value is less than threshold ( ) a decision will be made in favour of symbol
‘0’.

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8. Explain the Non- Coherent FSK Demodulation scheme with neat block diagrams.

Incoherent detection of FSK

Fig shows the block diagram of incoherent type FSK demodulator. The detector consists
of two band pass filters one tuned to each of the two frequencies used to communicate ‘0’s and
‘1’s., The output of filter is envelope detected and then baseband detected using an integrate and
dump operation. The detector is simply evaluating which of two possible sinusoids is stronger at
the receiver. If we take the difference of the outputs of the two envelope detectors the result is
bipolar baseband.
The resulting envelope detector outputs are sampled at t = kT b and their values are
compared with the threshold and a decision will be made infavour of symbol 1 or 0.
9. Explain the Differential Phase Shift Keying system with neat block diagrams[DPSK]

Fig. (a) DPSK Transmitter

Fig. (b) DPSK Receiver

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 A DPSK system may be viewed as the non coherent version of the PSK. It eliminates the
need for coherent reference signal at the receiver by combining two basic operations at the
transmitter
(1) Differential encoding of the input binary wave and
(2) Phase shift keying
Hence the name differential phase shift keying [DPSK]. To send symbol ‘0’ we phase
advance the current signal waveform by 180 0 and to send symbol 1 we leave the phase of the
current signal waveform unchanged.
The differential encoding process at the transmitter input starts with an arbitrary first but,
securing as reference and thereafter the differentially encoded sequence{d k} is generated by
using the logical equation.

Where bk is the input binary digit at time kT b and dk-1 is the previous value of the differentially
encoded digit. Table illustrate the logical operation involved in the generation of DPSK signal.

Input Binary Sequence {bK} 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1

Differentially Encoded 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 1
sequence {dK}
Transmitted Phase 0 0 Π 0 0 Π 0 0 0
Received Sequence 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 1
(Demodulated Sequence)

A DPSK demodulator is as shown in fig(b). The received signal is first passed through a
BPF centered at carrier frequency f c to limit noise power. The filter output and its delay version
are applied to correlator the resulting output of correlator is proportional to the cosine of the
difference between the carrier phase angles in the two correlator inputs. The correlator output is
finally compared with threshold of ‘0’ volts .
If correlator output is +ve -- A decision is made in favour of symbol ‘1’
If correlator output is -ve --- A decision is made in favour of symbol ‘0’
10. Explain the generation and detection of coherent QPSK system with neat block
diagrams
COHERENT QUADRIPHASE – SHIFT KEYING

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Fig. (a) QPSK Transmitter

Fig. (b) QPSK Receiver

In case of QPSK the carrier is given by

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 Fig. (c) QPSK Waveform
In QPSK system the information carried by the transmitted signal is contained in the
phase. The transmitted signals are given by

Where the carrier frequency for some fixed integer nc

E = the transmitted signal energy per symbol.

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T = Symbol duration.

The basic functions

There are four message points and the associated signal vectors are defined by

The table shows the elements of signal vectors, namely Si1 & Si2

Table:-

Input dibit Phase of Coordinates of message

QPSK points
signal(radians) Si1 Si2

10

00

01

11

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Therefore a QPSK signal is characterized by having a two dimensional signal
constellation(i.e.N=2)and four message points(i.e. M=4) as illustrated in fig(d)

.Fig (d) Signal-space diagram of coherent QPSK system.

Generation:-
Fig(a) shows a block diagram of a typical QPSK transmitter, the incoming binary data
sequence is first transformed into polar form by a NRZ level encoder. Thus the symbols 1& 0 are

represented by respectively. This binary wave is next divided by means of

a demultiplexer [Serial to parallel conversion] into two separate binary waves consisting of the
odd and even numbered input bits. These two binary waves are denoted by ao(t) and ae(t)
The two binary waves ao(t) and ae(t) are used to modulate a pair of quadrature carriers or

orthonormal basis functions which are given by

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The result is a pair of binary PSK signals, which may be detected independently due to the

orthogonality of .

Finally the two binary PSK signals are added to produce the desired QPSK signal.
Detection:-
The QPSK receiver consists of a pair of correlators with a common input and supplied with a

locally generated pair of coherent reference signals as shown in fig(b).The

correlator outputs x1 and x2 produced in response to the received signal x(t) are each compared
with a threshold value of zero.
The in-phase channel output :
If x1 > 0 a decision is made in favour of symbol 1
x1 < 0 a decision is made in favour of symbol 0
Similarly quadrature channel output:
If x2 >0 a decision is made in favour of symbol 1 and
x2 <0 a decision is made in favour of symbol 0
Finally these two binary sequences at the in phase and quadrature channel outputs are combined
in a multiplexer (Parallel to Serial) to reproduce the original binary sequence.
12. Derive the probability of error of QPSK system
Probability of error:-
A QPSK system is in fact equivalent to two coherent binary PSK systems working in
parallel and using carriers that are in-phase and quadrature.
The in-phase channel output x1 and the Q-channel output x 2 may be viewed as the
individual outputs of the two coherent binary PSK systems. Thus the two binary PSK systems
may be characterized as follows.

- The signal energy per bit

- The noise spectral density is

The average probability of bit error in each channel of the coherent QPSK system is

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 The bit errors in the I-channel and Q-channel of the QPSK system are statistically
independent . The I-channel makes a decision on one of the two bits constituting a symbol (d i bit)
of the QPSK signal and the Q-channel takes care of the other bit.
Therefore, the average probability of a direct decision resulting from the combined action
of the two channels working together is
pc= probability of correct reception
p1= probability of error

The average probability of symbol error for coherent QPSK is given by

In the region where We may ignore the second term and so the approximate

formula for the average probability of symbol error for coherent QPSK system is

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PROBLEM 1.
Binary data has to be transmitted over a telephone link that has a usable bandwidth of 3000Hz
and a maximum achievable signal-to-noise power ratio of 6 dB at its output..
a. Determine the maximum signaling rate and probability of error if a coherent ASK
scheme is used for transmitting binary data through this channel.
b. If the data is maintained at 300 bits/sec, calculate the error probability.
Solution:
a) If we assume that an ASK signal requires a bandwidth of 3r b Hz, then the maximum
signaling rate permissible is given by
Bandwidth =3 rb=3000 Hz
rb=1000 bits/sec.

b) If the bit rate is reduced to 300 bits/sec, then

PROBLEM 2
Binary data is transmitted over an RF band pass channel with a usable bandwidth of
10 MHz at a rate of (4.8) (106) bits/sec using an ASK signaling method. The carrier amplitude
at the receiver antenna is 1 mv and the noise power spectral density at the receiver input is 10 -15
watt/Hz. Find the error probability of a coherent and non coherent receiver..

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Solution:
a) The bit error probability for the coherent demodulator is

b) for non coherent ASK pe is given by

pe = 0.0008

PROBLEM 3.
Binary data is transmitted at a rate of 106 bits/sec over a microwave link having a bandwidth
of 3 MHz. Assume that the noise power spectral density at the receiver input is
Find the average carrier power required at the receiver input for
coherent PSK and DPSK signaling schemes to maintain Pe ≤10-4.
Solution:

The probability of error for the PSK scheme is

This example illustrates that the DPSK signaling scheme requires about 1 dB more power
than the coherent PSK scheme when the error probability is of the order of

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 10-4.

Probability of Error

Definition: Defines average probability of error that can occur in a Communication system
Error Functions
(1) Error function erf(u):

(2) Complementary error function erfc(u):

Properties of Error function

1. erf(-u) = -erf(u) - Symmetry.

2. erf(u) approaches unity as u tends towards infinity.

3. For a Random variable X, with mean mx and variance σx2, the probability of X is
defined by

Note: Relation: erfc(u) = 1 – erf(u) Tables are used to find these values.

Approximate Relation: ( only for large values of u )

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Q – Function:
An alternate form of error function. It basically defines the area under the Standardized
Gaussian tail. For a standardized Gaussian random variable X of zero mean and unit variance,
the Q-function is defined by

Relations between Q-function and erfc function:

(i)

(ii)

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