Unit -2

Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis is the thermal decomposition of biomass occurring in the absence of oxygen. It is

the fundamental chemical reaction that is the precursor of both the combustion and
gasification processes and occurs naturally in the first two seconds. The products of biomass
pyrolysis include biochar, bio-oil and gases including methane, hydrogen, carbon monoxide,
and carbon dioxide. Depending on the thermal environment and the final temperature,
pyrolysis will yield mainly biochar at low temperatures, less than 450 0C, when the heating
rate is quite slow, and mainly gases at high temperatures, greater than 800 0C, with rapid
heating rates. At an intermediate temperature and under relatively high heating rates, the
main product is bio-oil.

Pyrolysis can be performed at relatively small scale and at remote locations which enhance
energy density of the biomass resource and reduce transport and handling costs. Heat
transfer is a critical area in pyrolysis as the pyrolysis process is endothermic and sufficient
heat transfer surface has to be provided to meet process heat needs. Pyrolysis offers a flexible
and attractive way of converting solid biomass into an easily stored and transported liquid,
which can be successfully used for the production of heat, power and chemicals.

Feedstock for Pyrolysis

A wide range of biomass feedstocks can be used in pyrolysis processes. The pyrolysis
process is very dependent on the moisture content of the feedstock, which should be around
10%. At higher moisture contents, high levels of water are produced and at lower levels there
is a risk that the process only produces dust instead of oil. High-moisture waste streams, such
as sludge and meat processing wastes, require drying before subjecting to pyrolysis.

The efficiency and nature of the pyrolysis process is dependent on the particle size of
feedstocks. Most of the pyrolysis technologies can only process small particles to a maximum

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of 2 mm keeping in view the need for rapid heat transfer through the particle. The demand for
small particle size means that the feedstock has to be size-reduced before being used for
pyrolysis.

Figure 2 A glance at feedstock availability and energy products from biomass pyrolysis

Types of Pyrolysis

Pyrolysis processes can be categorized as slow pyrolysis or fast pyrolysis. Fast pyrolysis is
currently the most widely used pyrolysis system. Slow pyrolysis takes several hours to
complete and results in biochar as the main product. On the other hand, fast pyrolysis yields
60% bio-oil and takes seconds for complete pyrolysis. In addition, it gives 20% biochar and
20% syngas. Fast pyrolysis processes include open-core fixed bed pyrolysis, ablative fast
pyrolysis, cyclonic fast pyrolysis, and rotating core fast pyrolysis systems. The essential
features of a fast pyrolysis process are:

 Very high heating and heat transfer rates, which require a finely ground feed.
 Carefully controlled reaction temperature of around 500oC in the vapour phase
 Residence time of pyrolysis vapours in the reactor less than 1 sec
 Quenching (rapid cooling) of the pyrolysis vapours to give the bio-oil product.
 Uses of Bio-Oil
Bio-oil is a dark brown liquid and has a similar composition to biomass. It has a much
higher density than woody materials which reduces storage and transport costs. Bio-
oil is not suitable for direct use in standard internal combustion engines. Alternatively,
the oil can be upgraded to either a special engine fuel or through gasification
processes to a syngas and then bio-diesel. Bio-oil is particularly attractive for co-
firing because it can be more readily handled and burned than solid fuel and is
cheaper to transport and store. Co-firing of bio-oil has been demonstrated in 350 MW
gas fired power station in Holland, when 1% of the boiler output was successfully
replaced. It is in such applications that bio-oil can offer major advantages over solid
biomass and gasification due to the ease of handling, storage and combustion in an
existing power station when special start-up procedures are not necessary. In addition,
bio-oil is also a vital source for a wide range of organic compounds and speciality
chemicals.

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Importance of Biochar
The growing concerns about climate change have brought biochar into limelight. Combustion
and decomposition of woody biomass and agricultural residues results in the emission of a
large amount of carbon dioxide. Biochar can store this CO2 in the soil leading to reduction in
GHGs emission and enhancement of soil fertility. In addition to its potential for carbon
sequestration, biochar has several other advantages.

 Biochar can increase the available nutrients for plant growth, water retention and
reduce the amount of fertilizer by preventing the leaching of nutrients out of the soil.
 Biochar reduces methane and nitrous oxide emissions from soil, thus further
reducing GHGs emissions.
 Biochar can be utilized in many applications as a replacement for other biomass
energy systems.
 Biochar can be used as a soil amendment to increase plant growth yield.

Fast pyrolysis
Fast pyrolysis is a thermochemical conversion route that can transform bulky agro- and
forest-based raw and residual biomass feedstock into mainly liquid bio-oil and small amounts
of solid products in the absence of O 2 at temperature of 400–600°C and vapor residence time
of 0.5–3 s. The produced bio-oil from fast pyrolysis can be applied directly, upgraded, or
coproduced with gasoil to substances such as transportation fuels in existing crude oil
refineries [43]. Drying and grinding must be carried out before fast pyrolysis because (i) the
higher moisture content of biomass reduces the quantity and quality of the bio-oil; and (ii)
biomass with large particle size prevents heat transfer and thus leads to incomplete biomass
conversion [44]. There are several reactor configurations (e.g., bubbling fluidized bed,
circulating fluid and transported bed, and ablative reactor) that have been applied to biomass
fast pyrolysis. As illustrated in Fig. 21.4, biomass is dried and grinded and then charged into

P a g e 3 | 26
a pyrolyzer reactor, during which the biomass is rapidly heated using a hear carrier (e.g.,
sand) and results in the formation of hot bio-oil vapor. Afterward, the hot bio-oil vapor is
rapidly condensed to deter secondary reactions. Meanwhile, the resulting char is sent to a heat
generator and combusted with air to produce heat. The off gases can be recycled and reused
for drying and fluidization of the biomass [45].

Bio-oil is a multicomponent mixture consisting of different molecular weight compounds that

results from depolymerization and/or fragmentation of three key feedstock compositions:
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin. In general, the most commonly identified compounds in
the bio-oil include organic acids, phenols, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, ethers,

table, a high water content of ∼25 wt.% can be found in the bio-oil, thereby lowering
furans [44]. The physical properties of bio-oil are summarized in Table 21.4. As shown in

its energy density and combustion rate and causing ignition delay [47]. Furthermore, an
abundant fraction of organic acids (e.g., formic acid and acetic acid) is often identified in the
bio-oil obtained from biomass fast pyrolysis, which increases the acidity (pH = 3–4) and
makes it corrosive to equipment and storage vessels; this is particularly severe at elevated
temperature and at high water content

The physiochemical properties of bio-oil, such as feedstock characteristics, temperature,

heating rate, and catalyst type and dosage, are influenced by the operational parameters.
Dong et al. [48] evaluated the effect of temperature on the chemical composition of bio-oil
obtained from fast pyrolysis of polar wood. The authors reported that the yield
of levoglucosan (LG) (the most dominant anhydrosugars from cellulose) initially increased
with increasing temperature from 350 to 550°C, which could be due to the cleavage of
the glycosidic bond. However, further increase in temperature (up to 1000°C) led to a lower
LG yield. This might be attributed to the competition between LG formation and

P a g e 4 | 26
fragmentation reactions and/or the promotion of secondary cracking of LG at higher
temperatures. Similar trends can also be observed in the 1,4-anhydro-α-d-xylopyranose
from xylan (arabinoglucuronoxylan, the major hemicellulose component of polar wood). In
another study, Wang et al. [49] explored the fast pyrolysis performance of lignin derived
from ginkgo (Maidenhair tree), polar, and wheat straw at various temperatures. It was
observed that the amounts of monoaromatics, alkoxylated benzenes, and the catechol-type
compounds increased with an increase in temperature, which suggests the higher temperature
might stimulate dihydroxylation, alkylation, and demethylation reactions.

Properties Woody Agricultural Aquatic Petroleum

biomass [46] biomass [46] biomass [46] crude oil [44]
Moisture 27.3 25.7 26.6 /
content (wt.%)
Ash content 0.14 0.73 2.23 /
(wt.%)
Elemental composition (wt.%)
C 57.0 58.8 59.5 83–87
H 7.2 7.6 7.2 10–14
O 35.3 31.9 28.5 0.5–5
N 0.5 1.6 4.0 0.1–1.5
HHV (MJ/kg) 24.0 23.7 25.7 42
Density 1.12 1.15 0.98 0.75–1.0
(g(mL)−1at
40°C)
pH 3.2 3.8 4.3 /

Slow pyrolysis system

The pyrolysis system consists of a bench-scale continuous auger pyrolysis reactor, a solid
product collection vessel and a liquid product condensation and collection system, as shown
in Fig. 1 [21]. The reactor tube has a diameter of 26.5 mm and a length of 500 mm, and is
externally heated by a Carbolite VST 12/400 electric furnace with a power capacity of 2 kW.
Before the start of any pyrolysis experiment, the reactor is purged with nitrogen to eliminate
any oxygen present in the reactor tube.
Feedstock is fed manually through a feeding chute at a constant feeding rate of 350 g per
hour. Once in the reactor, the material is transported by the auger screw along the length of
the reactor tube for thermal processing. The evolved pyrolysis vapours and gases pass
through a cold-water condenser (at 5 °C) and two dry ice condensers (at −70 °C), where the
vapour is cooled to form pyrolysis liquid, which contains an organic fraction and an aqueous
fraction. The liquid samples from three collection bottles were mixed for analysis. The
permanent gases finally pass through a horizontal tube with a cotton wool filter to absorb
aerosols. Before venting, a sample stream of the gas is sent to a Micro GC analyser for gas
analysis.

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The solids residence time is the time taken for the solid feedstock to travel through the length
of the reactor tube. At the given feed rate and at an auger rotation speed of 5 rpm, the solids
residence time is approximately 6 min. The vapour residence time is the time taken for the
vapour product to travel the length of the reactor: under a constant feed rate and auger
rotation speed the vapour residence times are calculated as being in the range of 7–17 s
depending on reaction temperature. For this reactor with a certain raw material and a fixed
feed rate, the vapour residence time is a function of the vapour production rate, which is
dependent on the thermal processing temperature: the higher the reaction temperature, the
higher the vapour production rate, and the shorter vapour residence time, which is calculated
for each run. The temperatures of the furnace, the reactor outer surface, the reactor inner
surface and the vapour outlet are measured respectively by using K-type thermocouples and
recorded in a data logger. Mass balances (wt% on a wet weight basis) were calculated based
on the mass of waste processed and the final products collected of pyrolysis liquid, char,
and non-condensable gases.
Slow pyrolysis set-up

The slow pyrolysis reactions were carried out in a vertical, tubular, stainless steel reactor
(d × L = 3.8 × 30 cm) which was heated by an electric furnace (schematic in Fig. 1). The
maximum temperature ramp rate for the reactor was ca. 17 °C min−1 and the reactor was
continuously swept with nitrogen (800 ml min−1) to remove the produced gases and tars
produced during pyrolysis.

Slow pyrolysis set-up for the batch production of biochar: (1) nitrogen gas supply, (2) flow
control, (3) gas preheater, (4) electric tube furnace, (5) pyrolysis reactor, (6) sintered base
plate, (7) packed biomass bed, (8) biomass lock hopper, (9) condenser, (10) condensate/gas
separator, (11) cotton filter, (12) diaphragm gas flow meter, (13) gas vent and (14) bio-oil
recovery.

Manufacture of charcoal:Charcoal is produced following several processes, artisanal

and industrial. The best known industrial processes are slow pyrolysis and supra-
carbonization.

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During combustion, the wood will undergo 2 to 3 different chemical reactions: 2 for pyrolysis
with endothermic and exothermic; we must add a third for supra-carbonization, that
is, endothermic again. Because of this, charcoal has a higher fixed carbon content.

1. Pyrolysis consists of heating wood or other substances, in the absence of oxygen, with
external energy. Pyrolysis is initiated by heating a pile of wood under controlled
conditions in a closed space such as a charcoal kiln with a very limited supply of air
triggering endothermic and exothermic reactions. The biomass produces, as a result
of the pyrolysis process, a mixture of gas, liquid and charcoal.
2. Supra-carbonisation ("MAGE" technology) does not require external energy, unlike
pyrolysis, since it is the wood itself which serves as ignition for the furnaces and is
done by the upper part; and with the help of high chimneys, this allows to control the
process during the carbonization phase. As the fresh air intake is located below the
furnaces, the carbonization front goes downhill because the air at the top of the
furnaces is consumed first. The combustion phase is followed by a carbonizer, in
order to avoid the total ignition of the wood inside the oven, as well as the
evaporation of the water present in the raw material (up to 100 ° C). The energy
required for this step comes from the partial combustion of the wood, giving CO,
CO2, acetic acid and methanol (up to 270 ° C). Then, the exothermic decomposition
of the wood begins, between 270 and 300 ° C, causing an increase in the temperature
inside the furnace up to 400 ° C, with the production of charcoal, plant tar and
pyroligneous extracts. At this stage, the charcoal still contains a large amount of
volatile compounds (about 30%), with a fixed carbon content of 60 to 65%. At + 800
° C, the fixed carbon content reaches 82 to 84% for 3 to 7% of volatile compounds.
Charcoal is first of all characterized by its density which can vary between 0.2 and 0.6
t/m3 depending on the density of wood used as raw material. Charcoal produced from
hardwood is heavy and strong, whereas produced from softwood is soft and light. The
coefficient of transformation is about half (example: eucalyptus with a density of about 0.6
gives charcoal with a density of around 0.25 to 0.35).
The bulk density of charcoal does not only depend on the apparent density but also on the
size distribution, and is in the range of 180 - 220 kg/m3.
Charcoal has a relatively low moisture content of around 3 to 10%. The gross calorific value
of charcoal is linked to the amount of fixed carbon and depends strongly on the carbonization
temperature varying from 27 to 33 MJ/kg. Low carbonization temperatures give a higher
yield of charcoal but this charcoal is low grade, is corrosive due to its content of acidic tars,
and does not burn with a clean smoke-free flame. Good commercial charcoal should have a
fixed carbon content of about 75% and a final carbonization temperature of around 500°C.

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Table 7: Efficiencies of various types of kiln
Production of 1 kg of charcoal from Kiln efficiency
Traditional Kilns 8- 12 kg wood 8 – 12%
Improved traditional kilns 6 – 8 kg wood 12 - 17%
Industrial production technologies 5 – 7 kg wood 20 – 14%
New high-yield, low-emission systems 3 – 4 Kg wood 25 - 33%

Part of the energy losses during charcoal making are compensated for during end use, as
charcoal stoves have higher efficiencies than wood stoves (30% - charcoal stoves versus
10%-15% untended open fire or tripod).The following table gives information on the amount
of energy loss in % when introducing improved kilns and/or improved stoves in comparison
to the usage of firewood. For example, if one converts wood to charcoal using a traditional
kiln (with efficiency of 8%) and then burns that charcoal on a traditional stove (with
efficiency of 20%), there is a resulting energy loss of 73%

Earth Pit Kilns

Earth pit kilns are the traditional way of making charcoal in many parts of the world and may
represent the simplest technology for charcoal production. In brief, the process of using an
earth pit kiln begins by stacking wood in a pit, sealing it with a layer of grass and soil and
starting carbonization by igniting the wood at one end. Earth pit kilns are typically large and
large pieces of wood can be used. But can these kilns can also be built in small size and can
thus, be suitable for families and even individuals.

Pit kilns are labor intensive since a pit must be dug into the ground. Ventilation may also be
difficult to control and often carbonization is incomplete, producing only low quality
charcoal. To improve efficiency, pit kilns can be equipped with a chimney which allows the
use of biomass other than wood, such as coconut shells.
Earth Mound Kiln

This is also a common kiln used for charcoal production. It can be constructed from locally
available material. In brief, wood is collected and stacked in the polygonal shape of kiln. The
wood is then covered with a layer of grass and the construction is sealed with soil. A small
opening allows the control and monitoring of the process. When the kiln has been lit, it
requires continuous attention for 3 to 15 days depending on the size. After the kiln has cooled
down charcoal can be harvested. The main advantage of this type of kiln is that it can be
constructed easily without cost at the harvest site.

Downsides are that carbonization takes rather long and the process requires continuous
attention. In addition, charcoal quality is rather low and efficiency is only between 8 and

P a g e 8 | 26
15 %. Therefore charcoal production using traditional kilns is associated with high
consumption of wood. Nonetheless, earth mound kilns are typically more efficient than earth
pit kilns.
Casamance Kiln

The Casamance kiln was developed in Senegal and is an earth mound kiln equipped with a
chimney. This chimney, which can be made of oil drums, allows a better control of air flow.
In addition, the hot flues do not escape completely but are partly redirected into the kiln,
which enhances pyrolysis. Due to this reverse draft carbonization is faster than traditional
kilns. and more uniform giving a higher quality of charcoal and efficiency up to 30 %.
Comparative tests of the casamance kiln and traditional mound kilns confirmed the
advantages in terms of efficiency and shorter carbonization times due to the enhanced hot
flue circulation (see Meule casamancaise PERACOD Mundhenk (pdf))
Disadvantages of this kiln type are that it requires some capital investment for the chimney
and it is more difficult to construct.

Brick Kiln

The brick kiln is stationary, unlike the Casamance or traditional kilns. They have an
efficiency of up to 30 % and are suitable for semi-industrial production of charcoal. One type
is the truncated pyramid kiln, which is used in Chad mainly in the informal sectors. However,
it has a lower efficiency than other brick kilns. The most notable type is the Argentine half
orange Kiln, which has been adopted by the Malawi Charcoal Project. It is made entirely out
of brick and mud as mortar. Loading and unloading is performed through two opposite doors,
which are sealed before the kiln is ignited. The carbonisation cycle is much quicker and
allows harvesting of charcoal after 13 – 14 days. Using a kiln of about 6 m diameter, up to 15
t of high quality charcoal can be produced per month. However, as brick kilns are stationary
once built, they can only be used in areas with an easy supply of wood. Furthermore, the
wood has to be cut with some precision and water supply is required for preparation of
mortar. Kilns can also be produced using concrete instead of bricks; however, as their
construction is very cost-intensive they have not succeeded in Africa.

Steel Kiln

Many different types of steel kilns have been developed which are considered as one basis of
modern charcoal production. They are capable to carbonize even poor quality wood and can
easily be transported when necessary. However, as the annual output of a typical

P a g e 9 | 26
demountable steel kiln is about 100 – 150 t, they are not suitable for high-volume production.
Furthermore, the investment costs may be as high as 1,000 US$, which limits the use of steel
kilns considerably. Nevertheless, since efficiency is high (27 – 35 %) and carbonization is
quick (16 to 24 hours after ignition), steel kilns have been promoted as community kilns in
Kenya. There are also steel

drum kilns on the market - designed by Dr. M. Kinyanjui to facilitate access to sustianably
made charcoal, (using twigs, branches, maize cobs, coconuts etc. for feedstock) these kilns
are low cost, portable and easy to use. They can also have a wood oil trap installed to
condense some of the smoke into wood tar/oil for home use. They come in two sizes -
domestic for 40$ and business for 130$.

Marketing materials promoting these kilns.

Adam Retort

The retort kiln is one of the most efficient means of producing good quality charcoal. The
kiln returns the wood gases from the carbonisation chamber back to the external fire-box,
burns the volatile a higher proportion of the tar components almost completely and uses the
heat for the carbonisation process. The Improved Charcoal Production System (ICPS), also
called "adam-retort", may be presented as a modern example of retort technology. Efficiency
can be as high as 35 % and noxious emission can be reduced by 70 %. In addition, the
production cycle is completed within 12 hours or 24 to 30 hours included cooling. The retort
kiln is suitable for rural and semi-industrial charcoal production. Volume of wood chamber is
about 3m³ and ~250kg or more of charcoal can produced per batch. Wood chamber can be
loaded with about 1 ton of wet wood or ~750kg of ofen dry wood.
Disadvantges include that it’s a stationary kiln, investment costs exceed 1,200 US$ and
special skills are required for construction and operation. Nevertheless, the Adam-retort has
been introduced in several countries

The "mobile adam-retort"

This lately developed mobile retort by [Link] Adam is available since 2015 and its design
is based on 2 oil drums. These oil drums are replacable.

The mobile retort burns most of the smoke and works with high efficiency of about 30%
referring to the dry mass of the wood. About 140kg of wet wood (corresponding to about
120kg of wood without water) can be loaded and about 35kg of charcoal (high temperature
burnt) can be harvested.

Operation time is about 5 hours (3 hrs drying of wood, 2 hours of carbonization)

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Industrial Process

The supra-carbonization technology "MAGE"

The innovative character of the "MAGE" supra-carbonization process

([Link] is based on the use of vertical cylindrical metal furnaces,
intended for the carbonization of wood at temperatures of around 800 °C, to reach a fixed
carbon content in charcoal between 82 and 84%, higher than the standard NF EN 1860-2 June
2005.

The production process does not contaminate soil or air. All gases from carbonization
are destroyed by a flare.

The "MAGE" technology was developed in the early 80's by Jacques & Jean-Pascal MAGE,
then patented in the United States in 1989. It was then marketed in Argentina and Chile by
Blu Karb.

 These furnaces industrially produce renewable energy, namely a charcoal whose fixed
carbon content is > 82% because the technology makes it possible to control the
carbonization temperature at the heart of the furnace;
 "MAGE" technology requires 30% less wood than traditional methods to obtain the same
amount of charcoal, and kilns make it possible to recover industrial and forest wood
waste;
 This technology, unlike pyrolysis for example, does not need external energy input to
cook the wood;
 The furnace is filled with pre-cut woods chips in 10*5*5 cm, which avoids breaking the
pieces of charcoal after charring, increasing productivity by +30%;
 The wood is inflamed from the top and it will ignite to the bottom thanks to the air
circulation; the air vents located under the furnace are then closed once all the wood is on
fire ;
 A complete carbonization cycle lasts between 20 and 24 hours, depending on the
moisture content of the wood;
 Carbonization is broken down into 3 phases: endothermy, then exothermic and finally
again endothermy;
 Furnaces work 10 years and are 100% recyclable;
 The fixed carbon quality obtained preserves the health of consumers (colorectal cancer);
 A factory of 10 furnaces can be installed on a site of only 10,764 sq m; it generates about
40,000 carbon credits over the year;The volume of the furnace is about 16m³ of wood and
at least 1,500 KGs of charcoal are produced per carbonization cycle, for 1 oven : 36,000

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Yield -
Investment Interactions The most powerful decision making parameter in choosing a
carbonising system for charcoal for most developing countries is the interaction between the
yield of a process and the capital necessary to install it. A process which has twice the yield
of a traditional one would obviously be chosen if the capital investment of both systems were
the same both in amount and origin of the investment funds. But life is not usually so simple
and there is normally a trade-off between yield and investment. For example if the high yield
process requires substantial offshore Loan funds to establish then it may be a better option in
terms of Local development to use Locally available capital and Labour to grow more wood
in high yield plantations and avoid a committment to an offshore loan for a process which
would probably generate far Less jobs than the Lower yield process. But if as is usual there is
a shortage of either established forests or Land on which to establish plantations then other
factors being equal the capital intensive process may be attractive. Unfortunately in most
developing countries which find themselves simultaneously short of Land resource and
foreign investment funds the decision is usually made for them and the best option they can
follow is efficient use of available resources using the simple technology applied in the most
efficient way. (15) It is not proposed in this introductory note to pursue these difficult issues
further but simply to emphasise strongly the need to be aware of the complexities of the
situation which faces each country.
Measuring the Yield :Efficiency of carbonisation is expressed as the yield of charcoal in
gross terms (at the side of the retort or kiln) expressed as a percentage of the wood charged or
used-up to produce it. Normally only the wood actually usedup is reckoned. Thus unburnt
wood which can be recycled is deducted from the wood used even though it represents a
concealed form of inefficiency. On the other hand where indirect heating is used as in retorts
or the Swartz type kiln, which employs an external fire grate, the amount of wood used-up in
the heating must be included in the wood used to produce the charcoal. Account may be
taken that in some cases this wood may be of Lower quality. Wood and charcoal must be
measured using standardised methods. They need not be the same for both materials but they
must be consistent so that results are comparable. In other words a consistent methodology of
measurement must be adhered to. Properly measured conversion efficiencies allow different
charcoal making methods to be compared. Also these measurements are essential in
controlling Large charcoal making enterprises. The most accurate measuring system
compares all quantities on a weight basis. To avoid complication due to differing moisture
contents, the wood used is expressed on a bone dry basis and the charcoal is weighed bone
dry and free of fines. Where moisture is present it must be determined and allowed for. To
apply such a system, equipment for weighing and determining moisture content of wood and
charcoal must be available. Unfortunately this is rarely the case in most charcoal-making
situations. It is the method most suitable for research on processing and for the Large
industrial enterprise. Being free of inbuilt errors it is the final reference system. A practical
method which has been widely standardized in South America, particularly in the steel

P a g e 12 | 26
industry of Brazil uses volume measurement. Both the wood used and the charcoal produced
are measured in cubic meters corrected for stacking and compaction errors. The wood is
measured in steres (stacked cubic meters) and each stere is taken an equivalent to 0.65 solid
cubic meters. The system allows for the effect of shrinkage of the fuelwood on drying and the
reduction in volume which occurs when charcoal is transported and handled due to
settlement. This settlement is the result of abrading of sharp corners of the Lump charcoal
and the formation of fine charcoal which has practically no commercial value. The shrinkage
allowance for fuelwood is based on experiments on the effect of drying and destacking and
restacking as happens when a pile of dry wood is transported from the forest to the charcoal
plant. The results show that a pile of 100 steres of eucalypt wood shrinks to 84 steres after 3-
4 months drying and when the same pile is restacked its new volume is only - 9 - 79 steres.
Thus a reduction of 15% is allowed for drying and 21% for drying and restacking. The true
contents of a pile of fuelwood are also greatly influenced by the method of stacking.
Experience is the only way to overcome this problem in order to tell if the volume of the
wood has been inflated by dishonest stacking. The charcoal volume is measured by placing it
in a wire basket having the base one meter square and height somewhat more than a meter. A
commercial cubic meter of charcoal is considered to have a true volume of one cubic meter
only when measured at the side of the blast furnace, that is to say, in the bulk storage depot.
At the side of the charcoal kiln a cubic meter of commercial charcoal is considered to have a
true volume of 1.1 cubic meter. In this way the contraction of the charcoal in transport and
the production of useless fines is allowed for. The standard yield of Brazilian charcoal kilns
using this system is reckoned as 1 cubic meter of commercial charcoal from every 2.2 steres
of fuelwood. Volume measurement for determining charcoal yield is subject to certain
intrinsic errors but it is a simple method, easily understood and can be performed 'out in the
open'. It has a great advantage in the buying and selling of charcoal as it automatically
discourages adulteration by wetting the charcoal and mixing it with sand and earth. The
reason is that these actions have no effect on the volume. Further there is an incentive for the
charcoal to be transported carefully so the reduction in saleable volume by settlement and
production of fines is minimized. The temperature to which the charcoal is taken to in the
kiln affects the measure of the yield by changing its content of volatile tarry material. Soft
burned charcoal produced when the temperature does not rise above about 400°c can have a
volatile matter content of about 30% and this is equivalent to a yield of about 42% on a bone
dry weight basis. At soo0 c the volatile matter is only about 13% and the yield about 33% on
a bone dry basis. Hence, to compare equals with equals different kinds of charcoal must have
about the same volatile matter content.

The main areas of application of charcoal:

[Link] fuel for fireplaces, barbecues and other similar devices.

Unlike conventional fuel (for example, firewood), charcoal does not form smoke and open
flames if the ignition is done correctly, but gives only the required temperature – heat, so bars
and restaurants use it with pleasure in their barbecues for cooking various dishes. At the same
time, there is no need to wait for the wood to burn out – after all, charcoal is a ready-made
fuel. It is also important that our charcoal is also excellent as a fuel for home open fireplaces.

P a g e 13 | 26
Due to the absence of impurities and high carbon content, this charcoal burns for a long time
(gives heat) and does not emit odors (smoke) into the room at all.

[Link] industry.

 in ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy as a reducing agent (charcoal has a high carbon
content);
 for the production of aluminum, boron, etc .;
 in the production of pure silicon, which is used to make semiconductors;
 in the production of glass, crystal, paints, electrodes, plastics;
 obtaining in the process of pyrolysis of charcoal liquid by-products in the form of
wood tar (tar), from which they are subsequently produced: turpentine, food acetic
acid, rosin, methyl alcohol, alcohol solvents, etc.

[Link] agriculture.

 As a feed additive in animal husbandry.

 As a fertilizer in crop production.

[Link] construction.

As an insulating material in construction, as charcoal is very hygroscopic and absorbs odors

well.

[Link] anti-corrosive powders and lubricants.

Charcoal finds some use in instrumentation and printing, where it is used to grind and polish
parts and shapes. The most suitable for these purposes is coal from softwood, obtained
according to a special technological regime. In mechanical engineering, in a number of cases,
solid lubricants are used, mainly graphite. Charcoal, due to its low ash and pollution content,
can also be used for the production of the specified lubricant. To do this, coal is mixed with
sedimentary resin, calcined at a temperature of 1400-1500 ° C, and then processed with
manganese-sour potassium, sulfuric acid or tannin.

[Link] the production of black powder.

In the production of black powder, coal is used mainly from alder or buckthorn wood with a
carbon content of 72-80%. Gunpowder prepared on the basis of coal from other types of
wood is more difficult to ignite, therefore the use of other types of coal is not practiced. The
rate of combustion of gunpowder is affected by the amount of coal and the carbon content in
the coal. With an increase in the amount of coal, the combustion rate of the powder
decreases, and with an increase in the carbon content in coal, it increases. The composition of
gunpowder contains charcoal in an amount of 12 to 20%. So, hunting gunpowder contains
14-16% coal, corded powder 12%, sulfurless 20%, etc.

SEE MORE HERE: EQUIPMENT FOR DRYING

[Link] the production of electrical coal products.

Electric coal products are made from pure carbonaceous materials such as petroleum and
pitch coke, graphite, soot, charcoal, etc., by mixing with coal tar or pitch. These products are

P a g e 14 | 26
used in many sectors of the national economy. They are used in electrical equipment for
various motors, in electrical machines, for thermal purposes, in electric vacuum technology,
etc. This includes all types of carbon resistances, various contacts, brushes, products for
technology, communications and many other items.

[Link] a filler for plastics.

Charcoal can be used as a filler in plastics. Plastics of this type, where the filler is a powdered
carbonaceous material, include, for example, some grades of faolite, special-purpose pressing
materials, etc. In these plastics, coal can replace expensive and scarce graphite. Charcoal, as
already noted, is a low-ash material, very clean in terms of the presence of impurities. It is
stable in chemically aggressive environments and sufficiently heat-resistant. Raw coal has a
high electrical resistivity. When coal is calcined, its electrical conductivity increases rapidly,
therefore, by calcining coal to different temperatures and using some additives, it is possible
to obtain products with specified dielectric properties. Calcined charcoal acquires significant
adsorption activity, which enhances its main service function as a filler – adsorption
strengthening of the product. This function is based on changing the mechanical properties of
liquids near solid surfaces. The dissolved resin molecules near the surface of a solid coal
particle are oriented under the influence of adsorption forces of attraction. The liquid around
the particle acquires an ordered structure, while its mechanical properties change greatly.
When solidified, this structure is retained and the physical and mechanical properties of the
resulting solid are improved. In the production of irresponsible products, wastes of charcoal
production can be used, i.e. coal fines and dust, which have not previously found effective
use. Coal fines differ from commercial coal in a slightly higher ash content, but this
circumstance can only affect the acid resistance of products, without affecting other
properties. Resins such as phenol-formaldehyde, furfuraldehyde, etc. can serve as a binding
element for charcoal plastics. The composition of press materials can also include wood-resin
pitch, the presence of which in small amounts improves the plasticity of products.

[Link] a raw material for the production of activated carbons.

Active carbons are porous carbon bodies that create, upon contact with a gaseous or liquid
medium, a significant surface area for the sorption process.

Applications of active carbons:

 Chemical, food, pharmaceutical, fuel and energy, metallurgical, oil and gas
production and processing industries. As well as environmental protection.

Manufacture of Pyrolysis oil:

Wood Pyrolysis[edit]
Derivation of a wood-tar creosote from resinous woods

P a g e 15 | 26
When wood is heated above 270 °C it begins a process of decomposition called
carbonization. In the absence of oxygen, the final product is charcoal. If sufficient oxygen is
present, the wood will burn when it reaches a temperature of about 400-500 °C and the catch
fire and fuel product is wood ash. If wood is heated away from air, the moisture is first driven
off and until this is complete, the wood temperature remains at about 100-110 °C. When the
wood is dry its temperature rises, and at about 270 °C it begins to spontaneously decompose
and generate heat. This is the well known exothermic reaction which takes place in the
burning of charcoal. At this stage evolution of carbonization by-products starts. These
substances are given off gradually as the temperature rises and at about 450 °C the evolution
is complete.
The solid residue, charcoal, is mainly carbon (about 70%), with the remainder being tar-like
substances which can be driven off or decomposed completely only by raising the
temperature to above about 600 °C to produce Biochar, a high-carbon, fine-grained residue
that today is produced through modern pyrolysis processes, which is the direct thermal
decomposition of biomass in the absence of oxygen, which prevents combustion, to obtain an
array of solid (biochar), liquid—Pyrolysis oil (bio-oil/pyrolysis-oil), and gas (syngas)
products. The specific yield from the pyrolysis is dependent on process conditions. such as
temperature, and can be optimized to produce either energy or biochar. [4] Temperatures of
400–500 °C (752–932 °F) produce more char, while temperatures above 700 °C (1,292 °F)
favor the yield of liquid and gaseous fuel components. [5] Pyrolysis occurs more quickly at
higher temperatures, typically requiring seconds instead of hours. High temperature pyrolysis
is also known as gasification, and produces primarily syngas.[5] Typical yields are 60% bio-
oil, 20% biochar, and 20% syngas. By comparison, slow pyrolysis can produce substantially
more char (~50%). For typical inputs, the energy required to run a “fast” pyrolyzer is
approximately 15% of the energy that it outputs. [6] Modern pyrolysis plants can use the
syngas created by the pyrolysis process and output 3–9 times the amount of energy required
to run.
Algal Pyrolysis[edit]
Algae may be subjected to high temperatures (~500 °C) and normal atmospheric pressures.
The resultant products include oil and nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium.
There are numerous papers on the pyrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass. However, very few
reports are available for algal bio-oil production via pyrolysis. Miao et al. (2004b) performed
fast pyrolysis of Chllorella protothecoides and Microcystis areuginosa at 500 °C, and bio-oil

P a g e 16 | 26
yields of 18% and 24% were obtained, respectively. The bio-oil exhibited a higher carbon
and nitrogen content, lower oxygen content than wood bio-oil. When Chllorella
protothecoides was cultivated heterotrophically, bio-oil yield increased to 57.9% with a
heating value of 41 MJ/kg (Miao et al., 2004a). Recently when microalgae become a hot
research topic as the third generation of biofuel, pyrolysis has drawn more attention as a
potential conversion method for algal biofuel production. Pan et al. (2010) investigated slow
pyrolysis of Nannochloropsis sp. residue with and without the presence of HZSM-5 catalyst
and obtained bio-oil rich in aromatic hydrocarbons from catalytic pyrolysis. Algal pyrolytic
liquids separate into two phases with the top phase called bio-oil (Campanella et al., 2012;
Jena et al., 2011a). The higher heating values (HHV) of algal bio-oil are in the range of
31−36 MJ/kg, generally higher than those of lignocellulosic feedstocks. Pyrolytic bio-oil
consists of compounds with lower mean molecular weights and contains more low boiling
compounds than bio-oil produced by hydrothermal liquefaction. These properties are similar
to those of Illinois shale oil (Jena et al., 2011a; Vardon et al., 2012), which may indicate that
pyrolytic bio-oil is suited for replacing petroleum. In addition, the high protein content in
microalgae led to a high N content in the bio-oil, resulting in undesirable NOx emissions
during combustion and deactivation of acidic catalysts when co-processed in existing 10
crude oil refineries. Algal bio-oil had better qualities in many aspects than those produced
from lignocellulosic biomass. For example, algal bio-oil has a higher heating value, a lower
oxygen content and a greater than 7 pH value. However, upgrading towards the removal of
nitrogen and oxygen in the bio-oil is still necessary before it can be used as drop-in fuels.[7]
Algal Hydrothermal Liquefaction[edit]
Hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL) is a thermal depolymerization process used to convert
wet biomass into an oil—sometimes referred to as bio-oil or bio-crude—under a moderate
temperature and high pressure[8] of 350 °C (662 °F) and 3,000 pounds per square inch (21,000
kPa). The crude-like oil (or bio-oil) has high energy density with a lower heating value of
33.8-36.9 MJ/kg and 5-20 wt% oxygen and renewable chemicals.[9][10]
The HTL process differs from pyrolysis as it can process wet biomass and produce a bio-oil
that contains approximately twice the energy density of pyrolysis oil. Pyrolysis is a related
process to HTL, but biomass must be processed and dried in order to increase the yield.
[11]
The presence of water in pyrolysis drastically increases the heat of vaporization of the
organic material, increasing the energy required to decompose the biomass. Typical pyrolysis
processes require a water content of less than 40% to suitably convert the biomass to bio-oil.
This requires considerable pretreatment of wet biomass such as tropical grasses, which
contain a water content as high as 80-85%, and even further treatment for aquatic species,
which can contain higher than 90% water content. Per Algal HTL, the properties of the
resulting bio-oil are affected by temperature, reaction time, algae species, algae
concentration, reaction atmosphere, and catalysts, in subcritical water reaction conditions.

Bio-crude
Bio-oil typically requires significant additional treatment to render it suitable as a refinery
feedstock to replace crude oil derived from petroleum, coal-oil, or coal-tar.
Tar is a black mixture of hydrocarbons and free carbon obtained from a wide variety
of organic materials through destructive distillation.[12][13][14][15] Tar can be produced
from coal, wood, petroleum, or peat.[15]

 Pine tar is a sticky material produced by the high temperature carbonization of pine wood
in anoxic conditions (dry distillation or destructive distillation). The wood is

P a g e 17 | 26
 rapidly decomposed by applying heat and pressure in a closed container; the primary
resulting products are charcoal and pine tar. Pine tar consists primarily of aromatic
hydrocarbons, tar acids and tar bases. Components of tar vary according to
the pyrolytic process (e.g. method, duration, temperature) and origin of the wood (e.g.
age of pine trees, type of soil and moisture conditions during tree growth).
 Birch tar is a substance (liquid when heated) derived from the dry distillation of the
bark of the birch tree. It is compounded of phenols such
as guaiacol, cresol, xylenol and creosol (not to be confused with cresol).
Wood-tar creosote is a colourless to yellowish greasy liquid with a smoky odor, produces a
sooty flame when burned, and has a burned taste. It is non-buoyant in water, with a specific
gravity of 1.037 to 1.087, retains fluidity at a very low temperature, and boils at 205-225 °C.
When transparent, it is in its purest form. Dissolution in water requires up to 200 times the
amount of water as the base creosote. The creosote is a combination of natural phenols:
primarily guaiacol and creosol (4-methylguaiacol), which will typically constitute 50% of the
oil; second in prevalence, cresol and xylenol; the rest being a combination
of monophenols and polyphenols.
Pitch is a name for any of a number of viscoelastic polymers. Pitch can be natural or
manufactured, derived from petroleum, coal tar[16] or plants.
Black liquor and Tall oil is a viscous liquid by-product of wood pulp manufacturing.
Rubber oil is the product of the pyrolysis method for recycling used tires.

 Birch tar is a substance (liquid when heated) derived from the dry distillation of the bark
of the birch tree. It is compounded of phenols such
as guaiacol, cresol, xylenol and creosol (not to be confused with cresol).
Wood-tar creosote is a colourless to yellowish greasy liquid with a smoky odor, produces a
sooty flame when burned, and has a burned taste. It is non-buoyant in water, with a specific
gravity of 1.037 to 1.087, retains fluidity at a very low temperature, and boils at 205-225 °C.
When transparent, it is in its purest form. Dissolution in water requires up to 200 times the
amount of water as the base creosote. The creosote is a combination of natural phenols:
primarily guaiacol and creosol (4-methylguaiacol), which will typically constitute 50% of the
oil; second in prevalence, cresol and xylenol; the rest being a combination
of monophenols and polyphenols.
Pitch is a name for any of a number of viscoelastic polymers. Pitch can be natural or
manufactured, derived from petroleum, coal tar[16] or plants.
Black liquor and Tall oil is a viscous liquid by-product of wood pulp manufacturing.
Rubber oil is the product of the pyrolysis method for recycling used tires.

Applications of Pyrolysis oil

pyrolysis oil can be used in several applications to produce heat, electricity and cooling. BTG
is actively working on, or involved in development work in the following areas:

 (co-) Combustion
 Compression-Ignition Engines
 Turbine

P a g e 18 | 26
 (Co-) Combustion
The first large co-combustion test with pyrolysis oil was carried out in 2003 in cooperation
with Electrabel. In Harculo they own and operate a gas-fired power station of 350 MWe.
Specifically for this test BTG produced roughly 15 ton of pyrolysis oil in their pilot plant. A
couple of months after production, the oil was co-fired in the power plant at a rate of about
1.5 t/hr. The test was successful and no operational problems were encountered.

Burner development
Compared to conventional fuels the main difference is storage, feeding system and burner.
For end-users it is important to get guarantees from the burner suppliers that the burners are
suitable for pyrolysis oil. Recently, Stork Thermeq (Netherlands) and Dreizler (Germany)
carried out combustion tests with BTG pyrolysis oil on their burners. These test were
successful and full commercial guarantees can be provided. Also see the website of BTG
Bioliquids for more details.
Compression Ignition Engine
Application of a conventional compression-ignition (CI) engine (’Diesel engine’) is an
efficient way of converting liquid fuels into power, heat and cooling. In particular for
low capacities (< 1 MWe) it can be economically attractive. BTG’s development started
with a standard CI-engine, which has been adapted to run on pyrolysis oil. However,
the properties of pyrolysis oil are very different from diesel, and obviously some
modifications are needed to the engine:
 Pyrolysis oil is acidic and therefore all piping and devices in contact with pyrolysis oil
should be corrosion resistant;
 Oil contains typically 20-25 wt% water, lubrication is poor and small particles (< 20 um)
might be present;
 The viscosity of pyrolysis oil is higher than of mineral diesel, and strongly depends on water
content and temperature;
 Pyrolysis oil is sensitive to re-polymerisation, in particular, if temperature rises above 50-60
°C. Re-polymerisation may result in small particles in the oil and increase in viscosity;
 Pyrolysis oil is more difficult to ignite, and higher temperatures are required at the end of the
compression stage to achieve complete combustion;
 The Heating Value of pyrolysis oil is about half the value of diesel.
Engine test facility
The basis of the BTG’s test set-up is a one-cylinder, 20 kWe diesel engine. This Engine has
successfully been adapted to enable fuelling of pyrolysis oil.

Turbines
The first gas turbine to operate on pyrolysis oil was developed by Orenda based on a 2.5-
MWe Class GT2500 engine designed and manufactured by Zorya-Mash-proekt in the
Ukraine. The gas turbine was modified to fire multiple fuels: pyrolysis oil derived from wood
and wood waste products, ethanol, biodiesel and bituminous crude oil. According to

P a g e 19 | 26
publically available data, the turbine performed very well with 100% pyrolysis oil, under
different load conditions and during fuel switching. Unfortunately, due to limited pyrolysis
oil availability total operating hours are also limited to a few hundred [Link] 2010, the
Netherlands based company OPRA BV performed combustion tests with pyrolysis oil
supplied by BTG-BTL. OPRA is supplier of the robust and reliable 1.8 MWe OP16 gas
turbine. Based on these tests, OPRA is modifying the combustion chambers of its gas turbine
allowing 100 % pyrolysis oil firing.

Yields of pyrolysis gas

The influence of operating conditions on the yield and quality of bio-oil obtained from black
spruce wood mixture was studied using an auger reactor. Fast pyrolysis optimization through
response surface analysis was carried out with four variables: pyrolysis temperature, solids
residence time, nitrogen flow, and temperature of first stage of condensation. The
optimal conditions obtained for bio-oil production were 555°C, 129 s, 6.9 L/min, and 120°C,
respectively. The product yields were 38.61 wt.% of biochar, 25.39 wt.% of liquid, and 36.52
wt.% of non-condensable gases. Two liquid products were produced at the exit of the two
condensers, following the concept of fractional condensation. The oily phase yield recovered
in the first condenser was 10.59 wt.%, with a 16.86 wt.% of moisture content. Physical
properties of the oily phase were analyzed and compared with the ASTM standard D7544-12.
Qualitative identification of chemical compounds was carried out for the oily phase which
helped in pyrolysis optimization for the bio-oil production targeted towards its use as fuel in
commercial burners. In addition, the oil produced here is one of the lowest in water and solids
content, attributable to the unique feature of auger reactors without the need for additional
treatments.
Graphical Abstract

P a g e 20 | 26
pyrolysis gas:

Biomass gasification is a mature technology pathway that uses a controlled process involving
heat, steam, and oxygen to convert biomass to hydrogen and other products, without
combustion. Because growing biomass removes carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, the net
carbon emissions of this method can be low, especially if coupled with carbon capture,
utilization, and storage in the long term. Gasification plants for biofuels are being built and
operated, and can provide best practices and lessons learned for hydrogen production. The
U.S. Department of Energy anticipates that biomass gasification could be deployed in the
near-term timeframe.

Gasification is a process that converts organic or fossil-based carbonaceous materials at high

temperatures (>700°C), without combustion, with a controlled amount of oxygen and/or
steam into carbon monoxide, hydrogen, and carbon dioxide. The carbon monoxide then
reacts with water to form carbon dioxide and more hydrogen via a water-gas shift reaction.
Adsorbers or special membranes can separate the hydrogen from this gas stream.

Simplified example reaction

C6H12O6 + O2 + H2O → CO + CO2 + H2 + other species

Note: The above reaction uses glucose as a surrogate for cellulose. Actual biomass has
highly variable composition and complexity with cellulose as one major component.

Water-gas shift reaction

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2 (+ small amount of heat)

Pyrolysis is the gasification of biomass in the absence of oxygen. In general, biomass does
not gasify as easily as coal, and it produces other hydrocarbon compounds in the gas mixture
exiting the gasifier; this is especially true when no oxygen is used. As a result, typically an
extra step must be taken to reform these hydrocarbons with a catalyst to yield a clean syngas
mixture of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and carbon dioxide. Then, just as in the gasification

P a g e 21 | 26
process for hydrogen production, a shift reaction step (with steam) converts the carbon
monoxide to carbon dioxide. The hydrogen produced is then separated and purified.

Manufacturing of Pyrolysis gases:

Counter-current fixed bed ("up draft") gasifier[edit]
A fixed bed of carbonaceous fuel (e.g. coal or biomass) through which the "gasification
agent" (steam, oxygen and/or air) flows in counter-current configuration. [12] The ash is either
removed in the dry condition or as a slag. The slagging gasifiers have a lower ratio of steam
to carbon,[13] achieving temperatures higher than the ash fusion temperature. The nature of the
gasifier means that the fuel must have high mechanical strength and must ideally be non-
caking so that it will form a permeable bed, although recent developments have reduced these
restrictions to some extent.[citation needed] The throughput for this type of gasifier is relatively low.
Thermal efficiency is high as the temperatures in the gas exit are relatively low. However,
this means that tar and methane production is significant at typical operation temperatures, so
product gas must be extensively cleaned before use. The tar can be recycled to the reactor.
In the gasification of fine, undensified biomass such as rice hulls, it is necessary to blow air
into the reactor by means of a fan. This creates very high gasification temperature, as high as
1000 C. Above the gasification zone, a bed of fine and hot char is formed, and as the gas is
blow forced through this bed, most complex hydrocarbons are broken down into simple
components of hydrogen and carbon monoxide.[citation needed]
Co-current fixed bed ("down draft") gasifier[edit]
Similar to the counter-current type, but the gasification agent gas flows in co-current
configuration with the fuel (downwards, hence the name "down draft gasifier"). Heat needs to
be added to the upper part of the bed, either by combusting small amounts of the fuel or from
external heat sources. The produced gas leaves the gasifier at a high temperature, and most of
this heat is often transferred to the gasification agent added in the top of the bed, resulting in
an energy efficiency on level with the counter-current type. Since all tars must pass through a
hot bed of char in this configuration, tar levels are much lower than the counter-current type.
Fluidized bed reactor[edit]
The fuel is fluidized in oxygen and steam or air. The ash is removed dry or as heavy
agglomerates that defluidize. The temperatures are relatively low in dry ash gasifiers, so the
fuel must be highly reactive; low-grade coals are particularly suitable. The agglomerating
gasifiers have slightly higher temperatures, and are suitable for higher rank coals. Fuel
throughput is higher than for the fixed bed, but not as high as for the entrained flow gasifier.
The conversion efficiency can be rather low due to elutriation of carbonaceous material.
Recycle or subsequent combustion of solids can be used to increase conversion. Fluidized
bed gasifiers are most useful for fuels that form highly corrosive ash that would damage the
walls of slagging gasifiers. Biomass fuels generally contain high levels of corrosive ash.
Fluidized bed gasifiers uses inert bed material at a fluidized state which enhance the heat and
biomass distribution inside a gasifier. At a fluidized state, the superficial fluid velocity is
greater than the minimum fluidization velocity required to lift the bed material against the
weight of the bed. Fluidized bed gasifiers are divided into Bubbling Fluidized Bed (BFB),
Circulating Fluidized Bed (CFB) and Dual Fluidized Bed (DFB) gasifiers.

P a g e 22 | 26
Entrained flow gasifier[edit]
A dry pulverized solid, an atomized liquid fuel or a fuel slurry is gasified with oxygen (much
less frequent: air) in co-current flow. The gasification reactions take place in a dense cloud of
very fine particles. Most coals are suitable for this type of gasifier because of the
high operating temperatures and because the coal particles are well separated from one
another.
The high temperatures and pressures also mean that a higher throughput can be achieved,
however thermal efficiency is somewhat lower as the gas must be cooled before it can be
cleaned with existing technology. The high temperatures also mean that tar and methane are
not present in the product gas; however the oxygen requirement is higher than for the other
types of gasifiers. All entrained flow gasifiers remove the major part of the ash as a slag as
the operating temperature is well above the ash fusion temperature.
A smaller fraction of the ash is produced either as a very fine dry fly ash or as a black colored
fly ash slurry. Some fuels, in particular certain types of biomasses, can form slag that is
corrosive for ceramic inner walls that serve to protect the gasifier outer wall. However some
entrained flow type of gasifiers do not possess a ceramic inner wall but have an inner water
or steam cooled wall covered with partially solidified slag. These types of gasifiers do not
suffer from corrosive slags.
Some fuels have ashes with very high ash fusion temperatures. In this case mostly limestone
is mixed with the fuel prior to gasification. Addition of a little limestone will usually suffice
for the lowering the fusion temperatures. The fuel particles must be much smaller than for
other types of gasifiers. This means the fuel must be pulverized, which requires somewhat
more energy than for the other types of gasifiers. By far the most energy consumption related
to entrained flow gasification is not the milling of the fuel but the production of oxygen used
for the gasification.
Plasma gasifier[edit]
In a plasma gasifier a high-voltage current is fed to a torch, creating a high-temperature arc.
The inorganic residue is retrieved as a glass like substance.

Feedstock[edit]
There are a large number of different feedstock types for use in a gasifier, each with different
characteristics, including size, shape, bulk density, moisture content, energy content,
chemical composition, ash fusion characteristics, and homogeneity of all these properties.
Coal and petroleum coke are used as primary feedstocks for many large gasification plants
worldwide. Additionally, a variety of biomass and waste-derived feedstocks can be gasified,
with wood pellets and chips, waste wood, plastics and aluminium, Municipal Solid
Waste (MSW), Refuse-derived fuel (RDF), agricultural and industrial wastes, sewage sludge,
switch grass, discarded seed corn, corn stover and other crop residues all being used.[1]
Chemrec has developed a process for gasification of black liquor.[14]

P a g e 23 | 26
Waste disposal[edit]

HTCW reactor, one of several proposed waste gasification processes.

Waste gasification has several advantages over incineration:

 The necessary extensive flue gas cleaning may be performed on the syngas instead of the
much larger volume of flue gas after combustion.
 Electric power may be generated in engines and gas turbines, which are much cheaper
and more efficient than the steam cycle used in incineration. Even fuel cells may
potentially be used, but these have rather severe requirements regarding the purity of the
gas.
 Chemical processing (Gas to liquids) of the syngas may produce other synthetic fuels
instead of electricity.
 Some gasification processes treat ash containing heavy metals at very high temperatures
so that it is released in a glassy and chemically stable form.
A major challenge for waste gasification technologies is to reach an acceptable (positive)
gross electric efficiency. The high efficiency of converting syngas to electric power is
counteracted by significant power consumption in the waste preprocessing, the consumption
of large amounts of pure oxygen (which is often used as gasification agent), and gas cleaning.
Another challenge becoming apparent when implementing the processes in real life is to
obtain long service intervals in the plants, so that it is not necessary to close down the plant
every few months for cleaning the reactor.
Environmental advocates have called gasification "incineration in disguise" and argue that the
technology is still dangerous to air quality and public health. "Since 2003 numerous
proposals for waste treatment facilities hoping to use... gasification technologies failed to
receive final approval to operate when the claims of project proponents did not withstand
public and governmental scrutiny of key claims," according to the Global Alliance for
Incinerator Alternatives.[15] One facility which operated from 2009–2011 in Ottawa had 29
"emissions incidents" and 13 "spills" over those three years. It was also only able to operate
roughly 25% of the time.[16]Several waste gasification processes have been proposed, but few

P a g e 24 | 26
have yet been built and tested, and only a handful have been implemented as plants
processing real waste, and most of the time in combination with fossil fuels.[17]
One plant (in Chiba, Japan using the Thermoselect process[18]) has been processing industrial
waste with natural gas and purified oxygen since year 2000, but has not yet documented
positive net energy production from the process.
In 2007 Ze-gen erected a waste gasification demonstration facility in New Bedford,
Massachusetts. The facility was designed to demonstrate gasification of specific non-MSW
waste streams using liquid metal gasification.[19] This facility came after widespread public
opposition shelved plans for a similar plant in Attleboro, Massachusetts.[20] Today Ze-gen
appears to be defunct, and the company website was taken down in 2014.[21]
Also in the US, in 2011 a plasma system delivered by PyroGenesis Canada Inc. was tested to
gasify municipal solid waste, hazardous waste and biomedical waste at the Hurlburt Field
Florida Special Operations Command Air Force base. The plant, which cost $7.4 million to
construct,[22] was closed and sold at a government liquidation auction in May 2013. [23][24] The
opening bid was $25. The winning bid was sealed.

Applications of pyrolysis gases:

Current applications[edit]
Syngas can be used for heat production and for generation of mechanical and electrical
power. Like other gaseous fuels, producer gas gives greater control over power levels when
compared to solid fuels, leading to more efficient and cleaner operation.
Syngas can also be used for further processing to liquid fuels or chemicals.
Heat[edit]
Gasifiers offer a flexible option for thermal applications, as they can be retrofitted into
existing gas fueled devices such as ovens, furnaces, boilers, etc., where syngas may replace
fossil fuels. Heating values of syngas are generally around 4–10 MJ/m3.
Electricity[edit]
Currently Industrial-scale gasification is primarily used to produce electricity from fossil
fuels such as coal, where the syngas is burned in a gas turbine. Gasification is also used
industrially in the production of electricity, ammonia and liquid fuels (oil) using Integrated
Gasification Combined Cycles (IGCC), with the possibility of producing methane and
hydrogen for fuel cells. IGCC is also a more efficient method of CO 2 capture as compared to
conventional technologies. IGCC demonstration plants have been operating since the early
1970s and some of the plants constructed in the 1990s are now entering commercial service.
Combined heat and power[edit]
In small business and building applications, where the wood source is sustainable, 250–1000
kWe and new zero carbon biomass gasification plants have been installed in Europe that
produce tar free syngas from wood and burn it in reciprocating engines connected to a
generator with heat recovery. This type of plant is often referred to as a wood biomass CHP
unit but is a plant with seven different processes: biomass processing, fuel delivery,
gasification, gas cleaning, waste disposal, electricity generation and heat recovery. [25]

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Transport fuel[edit]
Diesel engines can be operated on dual fuel mode using producer gas. Diesel substitution of
over 80% at high loads and 70–80% under normal load variations can easily be achieved.
[26]
Spark ignition engines and solid oxide fuel cells can operate on 100% gasification gas.[27]
[28][29]
Mechanical energy from the engines may be used for e.g. driving water pumps for
irrigation or for coupling with an alternator for electrical power generation.
While small scale gasifiers have existed for well over 100 years, there have been few sources
to obtain a ready to use machine. Small scale devices are typically DIY projects. However,
currently in the United States, several companies offer gasifiers to operate small engines.
Renewable energy and fuels[edit]
In principle, gasification can proceed from just about any organic material,
including biomass and plastic waste. The resulting syngas can be combusted. Alternatively, if
the syngas is clean enough, it may be used for power production in gas engines, gas turbines
or even fuel cells, or converted efficiently to dimethyl ether (DME) by methanol dehydration,
methane via the Sabatier reaction, or diesel-like synthetic fuel via the Fischer–Tropsch
process. In many gasification processes most of the inorganic components of the input
material, such as metals and minerals, are retained in the ash. In some gasification processes
(slagging gasification) this ash has the form of a glassy solid with low leaching properties,
but the net power production in slagging gasification is low (sometimes negative) and costs
are higher.
Regardless of the final fuel form, gasification itself and subsequent processing neither
directly emits nor traps greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Power consumption in the
gasification and syngas conversion processes may be significant though, and may indirectly
cause CO2 emissions; in slagging and plasma gasification, the electricity consumption may
even exceed any power production from the syngas.
Combustion of syngas or derived fuels emits exactly the same amount of carbon dioxide as
would have been emitted from direct combustion of the initial fuel. Biomass gasification and
combustion could play a significant role in a renewable energy economy, because biomass
production removes the same amount of CO 2 from the atmosphere as is emitted from
gasification and combustion. While other biofuel technologies such as biogas
and biodiesel are carbon neutral, gasification in principle may run on a wider variety of input
materials and can be used to produce a wider variety of output fuels.
There are at present a few industrial scale biomass gasification plants. Since 2008 in
Svenljunga, Sweden, a biomass gasification plant generates up to 14 MW th, supplying
industries and citizens of Svenljunga with process steam and district heating, respectively.
The gasifier uses biomass fuels such as CCA or creosote impregnated waste wood and other
kinds of recycled wood to produces syngas that is combusted on site. [30][31] In 2011 a similar
gasifier, using the same kinds of fuels, is being installed at Munkfors Energy's CHP plant.
The CHP plant will generate 2 MWe (electricity) and 8 MWth (district heating).[32][33]

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