foods

Review
Microalgae: Bioactive Composition, Health Benefits, Safety and
Prospects as Potential High-Value Ingredients for the
Functional Food Industry
Josephine Ampofo 1, * and Lord Abbey 2

1 Department of Food Science and Technology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
2 Department of Plant, Food and Environmental Sciences, Dalhousie University, 50 Pictou Road,
Truro, NS B2N 5E3, Canada; labbey@[Link]
* Correspondence: [Link]@[Link]

Abstract: Global population is estimated to reach about 9.22 billion by 2075. The increasing knowl-
edge on the relationship between food biochemistry and positive health gives an indication of the
urgency to exploit food resources that are not only sustainable but also impact human health beyond
basic nutrition. A typical example of such novel food is microalgae, an aquatic microorganism
with a plethora of diverse bioactive compounds including phenolics, carotenoids, vitamin B12 and
peptides. Microalgal bioactive compounds have been shown to possess positive health effects such as
antihypertensive, anti-obesity, antioxidative, anticancer and cardiovascular protection. Although, the
utilization of microalgal biomass by the functional food industry has faced lots of challenges because
of species diversity and variations in biomass and cultivation factors. Other documented challenges
were ascribed to changes in functional structures during extraction and purification due to inefficient
bio-processing techniques, inconclusive literature information on the bioavailability and safety of the
microalgal bioactive compounds and the fishy odor and taste when applied in food formulations. In
spite of these challenges, great opportunities exist to exploit their utilization for the development
Citation: Ampofo, J.; Abbey, L. of functional foods. Microalgae are a renewable resource and have fast growth rate. Therefore,
Microalgae: Bioactive Composition, detailed research is needed to bridge these challenges to pave way for large-scale commercialization
Health Benefits, Safety and Prospects of microalgal-based healthy foods. The focus of this review is to discuss the potential of microalgae as
as Potential High-Value Ingredients natural ingredients for functional food development, factors limiting their acceptance and utilization
for the Functional Food Industry. in the food industry as well as their safety concerns with respect to human consumption.
Foods 2022, 11, 1744. https://
[Link]/10.3390/foods11121744
Keywords: microalgae; bioactive compounds; functional food; elicitation
Academic Editors: Jian Ji and Lin Shi

Received: 28 April 2022

Accepted: 9 June 2022
1. Introduction
Published: 14 June 2022
Functional role of foods has shifted from only the provision of energy and basic
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
nutrients to include the supply of non-nutritive bioactive compounds capable of offering
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
protection against the development of chronic diseases. Plant food groups (e.g., grains,
published maps and institutional affil-
legumes, nuts, fruits and vegetables, etc.) with these duo characteristics are defined
iations.
as functional foods, which can be consumed as fresh foods, minimally processed or as
ingredients in formulated foods [1]. However, with the increasing world population and
consumer knowledge of the relationship between food intake and development of diseases,
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
there is the need to exploit other food sources that can (i) sustain the functional food
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. industry and (ii) meet the demanding health needs of the growing populace. In pursuit of
This article is an open access article this, an underexploited aquatic microorganism with potential functional food supply is
distributed under the terms and microalgae.
conditions of the Creative Commons Compared to terrestrial plants, microalgae are sustainable due to their rapid growth,
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// ease of cultivation and non-competition for arable land. Microalgae are unicellular aquatic
[Link]/licenses/by/ microorganisms with over 50,000 classified species. Some notable examples include Nos-
4.0/). toc commune, Arthrospira platensis, Aphanizomenon flosaquae, Chlorella vulgaris and Chlorella

Foods 2022, 11, 1744. [Link] [Link]

 Foods 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 21
Foods 2022, 11, 1744 2 of 20

microorganisms with over 50,000 classified species. Some notable examples include Nostoc
commune, Arthrospira platensis, Aphanizomenon flosaquae, Chlorella vulgaris and Chlorella pyr-
pyrenoidosa [2,3]. Besides their appreciable levels of primary metabolites (e.g., protein,
enoidosa [2,3]. Besides their appreciable levels of primary metabolites (e.g., protein, carbo-
carbohydrates, polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamins), the health benefits of microalgae
hydrates, polyunsaturated fatty acids and vitamins), the health benefits of microalgae are
are mainly correlated to the presence of high value secondary metabolites. Secondary
mainly correlated to the presence of high value secondary metabolites. Secondary metab-
metabolites
olites are non-nutritive
are non-nutritive compounds compounds
produced in produced in plants
plants as defense as defense
agents againstagents
environ-against en-
mental stress [4]. Microalgae research has shown substantial concentrations of diverseof diverse
vironmental stress [4]. Microalgae research has shown substantial concentrations
secondarymetabolites
secondary metabolites such
such as pigments
as pigments (e.g.,(e.g., phenolics,
phenolics, carotenoids,
carotenoids, etc.), phytosterols
etc.), phytosterols
andmycosporine-like
and mycosporine-like amino
amino acids
acids [5] (Figure
[5] (Figure 1). 1).

PUFAs Pigments

Bioactive Bioactive
Peptides primary Vitamins Phycobili
MAAs secondary
metabolites -proteins
metabolites

Polysacch
aride- Phytoste-
rides rols

Positive health effects:

Antihypertensive, antioxidative, anticancer, antidiabetic, anticholesterol, antiaging etc.,

1. Bioactive
Figure 1.
Figure Bioactive composition of microalgal
composition of microalgal biomass. PUFA—polyunsaturatedfatty
biomass. PUFA—polyunsaturated fattyacids;
acids; MAAs—
MAAs—mycosporine-like
mycosporine-like aminoamino
[Link].

Boussiba
[Link].[6][6]
reported
reportedthethe
total biomass
total biomassof Haematococcus
of Haematococcuspluvialis to consist
pluvialis of
to consist of 4%
4% astaxanthin. In another study by Hifney et al. [7], phycobilin content of
astaxanthin. In another study by Hifney et al. [7], phycobilin content of Arthrospira platensisArthrospira
platensis was reported
was reported as 25% as of 25% of itsdry
its total total dry biomass.
biomass. According
According to literature,
to literature, microalgal
microalgal metabolites
metabolites are of health value due to their capacity as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-
are of health value due to their capacity as antioxidant, antimicrobial, antitumor, anti-
tumor, anti-inflammatory and anticancer capacities [8,9]. Therefore, considering their re-
inflammatory and anticancer capacities [8,9]. Therefore, considering their renewability and
newability and plethora of high-value bioactive compounds, microalgae can be postulated
plethora of high-value
as sustainable healthy food bioactive
systems,compounds,
which may bemicroalgae
a reason for can
theirbe postulated
increasing as sustainable
scientific
healthy
Foods 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW food systems,
literature over time (Figure 2).which may be a reason for their increasing scientific literature
3 of 21 over
timeThe(Figure 2).
current review aim is to provide a comprehensive discussion on the microalgal
composition of bioactive compounds, their biological activities, food applications, safety
concerns and factors limiting their utilization in the functional food industry. This review
further proposed innovative approaches to enhance the acceptance and utilization of mi-
croalgae as alternative plant-based novel food ingredients.

Figure 2. Bibliometric analysis on “microalgae and bioactive compounds” from the Web of Science
Figure 2. Bibliometric analysis on “microalgae and bioactive compounds” from the Web of Science
database. The chart displays published research papers from January 1991 to December 2021.
database. The chart displays published research papers from January 1991 to December 2021.
2. High-Value Bioactive Primary Metabolites
2.1. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) cannot be produced by the human body, hence,
the need to obtain them through food consumption. They are divided into two groups
Downloaded
namely omega-3 fatty acids (including from [Link]
α-linolenic, ALA; eicosapentaenoic by [Link],
acid, EPA; and on 12/18/25.
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Foods 2022, 11, 1744 3 of 20

The current review aim is to provide a comprehensive discussion on the microalgal

composition of bioactive compounds, their biological activities, food applications, safety
concerns and factors limiting their utilization in the functional food industry. This review
further proposed innovative approaches to enhance the acceptance and utilization of
microalgae as alternative plant-based novel food ingredients.

2. High-Value Bioactive Primary Metabolites

2.1. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids (PUFAs)
Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) cannot be produced by the human body, hence,
the need to obtain them through food consumption. They are divided into two groups
namely omega-3 fatty acids (including α-linolenic, ALA; eicosapentaenoic acid, EPA;
and docosahexaenoic acid, DHA) and omega-6 fatty acids (including arachidonic acid
ARA; linoleic acid, LA; γ-linoleic acid, GLA; and conjugated linoleic acid, CLA) [10]. The
health value of microalgae can partly be directed to its composition of PUFAs, which have
been shown to promote brain and eye health, as well as protect against cardiovascular
diseases, obesity, diabetes and arthritis [11]. Well-known PUFA microalgal producers
include Crypthecodinium, Schizochytrium and Ulkenia sp. although other genera such as
Phaeodactylum, Monodus, Nannochloropsis and Porphyridium have also shown considerable
levels of DHA and EPA [12]. However, it is important to highlight that a majority of
research data on microalgal PUFAs are reported with reference to their biofuel applications,
with very limited reports on food, health and pharmaceutical applications. Considering
the health benefits of PUFAs, coupled with the low consumer acceptance of fish oil PUFAs
(i.e., low oxidative stability and high off-flavors), it can be postulated that there is the
demand for alternative PUFAs. Hence, scientific data on microalgal PUFA profile, their
bioactive properties and stabilities under different processing conditions will be very
crucial in helping promote their applications in the functional food industry. In the study
of Aussant et al. [13], eight species of microalgae were cultivated under different conditions
(temperature—8, 14, 20 and 26 ◦ C; time—5, 10 and 14 days). Of the eight investigated
species, Nannochloropsis oculata and Isochrysis galbana reported the highest concentration
of EPA (2.52 mg/L) and DHA (1.08 mg/L) at 20 ◦ C/day 5 and 14 ◦ C/day 5, respectively,
with their investigated in vitro nutritional indices (i.e., hypocholesterolemic, atherogenic
and thrombogenic indices) falling within accepted health ranges. Similarly, an increase
in bicarbonate concentration from 2 to 8 mM increased the total PUFA content by 5.6% in
Pavlova lutheri [14]. However, increasing light intensity from 37.7 to 100.0 µmol/m2 /s in
Chlorella vulgaris reduced DHA and EPA levels by 50 and 70%, respectively [15].

2.2. Polysaccharides
From the review of Mourelle et al. [16], microalgal polysaccharides are largely ex-
ploited from the genera Porphyridium, Phaeodactylum, Chlorella, Tetraselmis, Isochrysis and
Rhodella. In microalgae, polysaccharides function as protection agents, energy reservoirs
and structural molecules, and are divided into pectins, glycol-protein, sulfated polysaccha-
rides (SPS) and homo- and hetero-polysaccharides [17,18]. Among these polysaccharide
groups, the most widely reported is the sulfated group with findings mainly reported on
their anti-inflammatory benefits. In the study of Matsui et al. [19], extracts of sulfated
polysaccharides from Porphyridium showed in vitro migratory inhibition of leukocytes
to inflammation sites. These authors also observed in vivo microalgal inhibition against
erythema development. Few antioxidant studies have also been reported with microalgae
polysaccharides, as further discussed in Section 4 of the text. It is also important to highlight
that microalgal polysaccharides are often exploited for their techno-functional applications,
compared to their health benefits, thus, making it difficult to correlate their structure with
health effects. Therefore, future studies focusing on the structure–activity relationship be-
tween microalgal polysaccharides and potential bioactive effects are highly recommended.

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2.3. Vitamins
Although vitamins are essential elements required for proper human development,
they can only be obtained through diets or supplements. Microalgae are excellent potential
source of vitamins, compared to some well-known sources such as orange, carrot and soy
flour [20]. Although microalgae are not natural producers of vitamin A, it is interesting to
note that microalgae can accumulate vitamin A precursors such as carotenes (i.e., α- and β-
carotenes) and retinol, which have been demonstrated to protect against the development of
some cancer types [21]. The recent study of Ljubic et al. [22] investigated the accumulation
of vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) in Nannochloropsis oceanica, Arthrospira maxima, Rhodomonas
salina and Chlorella minutissima upon exposure to different doses of ultraviolet B (0, 15,
22 and 36 kJ/m2 /day) for 7 days. The authors observed the highest level of vitamin D3
(1 µ/g dry weight) with Nannochloropsis oceanica at UV-B dose of 36 kJ/m2 /day, compared
to the control (< 0.004 µ/g DW). Edelmann et al. [23] reported vitamin B9 contents in
formulated powders of Chlorella sp. and Nannochloropsis sp. to be 25.9 and 20.8 µg/g,
respectively. It can therefore be postulated that the consumption of about 5 g of Chlorella
and Nannochloropsis microalgae powder can provide a quarter of the recommended daily
intake (i.e., 400 µg/d) of vitamin B9 . According to Tarento et al. [24], cyanobacteria has
about 200 µg/g of vitamin K1 , being about six times higher than levels reported for parsley
(i.e., 37 µg/g), a well-known vitamin K1 food source. Hence, adult daily consumption of
1 g cyanobacteria will provide three times their daily needs for vitamin K1 . Another crucial
vitamin imperative for good health, especially among the aged is vitamin B12 , although it
is limited in plant foods [25]. Nevertheless, Edelmann et al. [23] observed Chlorella sp. to
contain 2.4 µg/g of vitamin B12 , concluding that 5 g Chlorella powder will provide five times
the daily requirement of vitamin B12 . A further important observation is that literature on
bioaccessibility and bioavailability of microalgal vitamins is very limited. Thus, the need
for deeper studies to enable health-regulating agencies and food industries to approve and
include microalgae in the formulation of functional foods.

2.4. Peptides
Peptides are short chain amino acids (i.e., 20–50 units) linked together by peptide
bonds [26]. According to Khanra et al. [27], 50% of the global protein and peptide market is
currently sourced from terrestrial plants and may be replaced by proteins from microalgae
and insects by 2054. Considering this trend, microalgal peptides has been exploited from
Chlorella, Navicula, Tetraselmis and Nitzschia [2]. Ko et al. [26] isolated a pentapeptide with
the amino acid sequence Leu-Asn-Gly-Asp-Val-Trp from Chlorella ellipsiodea, and reported
appreciable peroxyl radical, 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl radical
scavenging capacities with half maximal inhibitory concentration values (IC50 ) of 0.02, 0.92
and 1.42 mM, respectively. Two isolated peptides from Nannochloropsis oculata with an
amino acid sequence of Gly-Met-Asn-Asn-Leu-Thr-Pro and Leu-Glu-Gln were found to
possess anti-hypertensive properties by inhibiting the activity of angiotensin-converting
enzyme (ACE) at IC50 values of 123 and 173, respectively [28]. According to these authors,
microalgal peptides can exhibit antihypertensive properties through the (i) inhibition of
ACE, the main enzyme responsible for vasoconstriction of veins and arteries (ii) triggering
of vasodilation effect, i.e., capacity to increase nitric oxide levels through the stimulation of
the endothelial nitric oxide synthase pathway.

3. High-Value Microalgae Secondary Metabolites

3.1. Pigments
Pigments are secondary metabolites responsible for the coloring of living organisms,
harvesting of light energy for photosynthesis and protection against oxidative stress. Up
until now, the main groups of microalgal pigments include carotenoids, phenolics, chloro-
phyll and phycobiliproteins [2]. Details of the subgroups within these pigment groups
are discussed further in the text, focusing mainly on their applications in functional food
development.

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3.1.1. Phenolic Compounds

Basically, phenolics are benzene ringed compounds, with hydroxyl groups present
in their chemical structure. Depending on their carbon skeleton, phenolic compounds are
divided into phenolic acids (e.g., hydroxybenzoic acids such as gallic and vanillic acids
and hydroxycinnamic acids such as caffeic and coumaric acids), flavonoids (e.g., antho-
cyanin, quercetin and catechin), tannins (e.g., phlorotannins) and stilbenes [4]. Although
microalgae have appreciable levels of phenolic compounds, majority of literature studies
on aquatic phenolics are reported with macroalgae (i.e., seaweed). Nevertheless, the few lit-
eratures available on microalgae show significant variations due to specie type, cultivation
conditions and techniques used for extraction, identification and quantification. Chlorella
pyrenoidosa and Arthrospira platensis showed total phenolic levels of 25.8 and 43.2 mg/g,
respectively [29]. In another study by Goiris et al. [30], phenolic composition of 32 microal-
gae species ranged between 54 and 375 mg/g. Additionally, Widowati et al. [31] observed
total phenolic levels of 16.87 and 17.80 mg/g with Tetraselmis chuii and Isochrysis galbana,
respectively. Interestingly, although literature has reported red grapes (Vitis vinifera) as
the leading fruit producer of phenolic compounds, a study by Manach et al. [32] showed
phenolic levels of microalgae to be comparable. However, to encourage their applications
in the food industry, in-depth studies on the characterization of microalgal phenolic com-
pounds are recommended to scientifically correlate their potential health benefits with
specific functional foods.

3.1.2. Carotenoids
Carotenoids are lipid-soluble pigments mainly responsible for the purple, red, or-
ange and yellow colors of living organisms. According to Rammuni et al. [33] about
600 carotenoid structures have been identified. Structurally, carotenoids are tetraterpenes
consisting of eight isoprene units with a 40-carbon skeleton, divided into two groups
namely carotenes and xanthophylls [34]. The carotene groups of lycopene and β-carotene
consist solely of hydrocarbons (C40 H56 ), whereas the xanthophylls (e.g., lutein, zeaxanthin
and astaxanthin) are made up of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen (C40 H56 O2 ) [35]. Among mi-
croalgal species, the dominant carotenoid producing group is Chlorophyceae, which can yield
about 90% of xanthophylls and carotenes with limited levels of fucoxanthin, diatoxanthin
and diadinoxanthin [36]. Previous literature such as the study of Inbaraj et al. [37] investi-
gated the presence of different carotenoids in Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Their study observed
the presence of cis lutein isomers (27975.3 µg/g), trans-α-carotene (2465.8 µg/g), zeaxan-
thin (2170.3 µg/g), β-carotene cis isomers (2159.3 µg/g), trans-β-carotene (2155.0 µg/g),
α-carotene cis isomers (1766.7 µg/g), β-cryptoxanthin (334.9 µg/g), neoxanthin and its cis
isomers (199.7 µg/g), neochrome (65.2 µg/g), auroxanthin (38.5 µg/g) and violaxanthin
and its cis isomers (38.1 µg/g).

β-Carotene
From the work of Khanra et al. [27], β-carotene is prevalently produced by Scenedesmus
almeriensis, Dunaliella bardawil, Dunaliella tertiolecta and Dunaliella salina. Consumption
of microalgae can help meet the physiological need of vitamin A, since research has
reported the body’s capacity of converting β-carotene to vitamin A. Among microalgae
species, Dunaliella salina has been reported as the highest source of β-carotene, exhibiting
about 98.5% β-carotene in relation to its total carotenoid content (13%, dry biomass) [33].
Compared to other sources, microalgal β-carotene has been shown to be a rich source of
9-cis β-carotene (i.e., a cyclic carotene with the structure of β-carotene, but with a cis double
bond attached to positions 9 and 10) [36]. In fact, this structure is a major contributor of its
free radical scavenging capacities. Secondary metabolites of some microalgae are presented
in Table 1.

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Table 1. Health benefits of secondary metabolites from selected microalgal species.

Genus/Species Metabolite Concentration Bioactive Effect References

Dunaliella salina 0.4–0.8% Antioxidative, anticancer, cataract and macular
Lutein [9,35]
Chlorella sorokiniana 5.21 mg/g degeneration protection
Heterochlorella luteoviridis 0.19 mg/g Anticancer, antioxidative, antihypertensive,
Dunaliella salina β-carotene 0.01–15.0 g/L neuroprotective, protection against macular [36,38]
degeneration, anticholesterol
Chaetoceros sp. 1.5–2.0%
Odontella sp. Antioxidative, anticancer, anti-cholesterol, [39]
Fucoxanthin 5.13 mg/g antidiabetic, antitumor
Chaetoceros sp.
Antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory,
Haematococcus pluvialis Astaxanthin 1.95–2.75% [40]
antioxidative, neuroprotective, antimicrobial
Antibacterial, anticancer, anti-inflammatory,
Chlorella zofingiensis Astaxanthin 1.5% [41]
antioxidative, neuroprotective, antimicrobial
Heterochlorella luteoviridis 0.244 mg/g
Dunaliella salina 6 mg/g Improve eye health, antidiabetic [35,42–46]
Lyngbya sp. Zeaxanthin 0.13 mg/g
Lyngbya sp. 27.47 mg/g
Anabaena sp. 8.3%
Cyanidium caldarium 4–53 mg/g
Neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory,
Spirulina platensis 6.5–152 mg/g
Phycocyanin antioxidative, hepatoprotective, [47–50]
Arthrospira platensis 54.65 mg/g antiaging, antitumor
Oscillatoria
quadripunctulata 27.43 mg/g

Spirulina platensis 26.8–45.2 mg/g

Spirulina sp. 20–70 mg/g Hepatoprotective, antioxidative,
Allophycocy-anins [47,51,52]
Porphyridium cruentum 13.20 mg/g anti-inflammatory
Spirulina platensis 92 mg/g

Lutein
Lutein has gained much research interest in recent years due to its food coloring
property and nutraceutical value, especially as antioxidant and anticancer agents, with
intake up to 60 mg/day safe for adults of 60 kg body weight [53]. Previous research
has correlated lutein with antioxidative, antiaging, anti-cardiovascular and anticancer
benefits [9]. Among microalgae, the Chlorella genus is reported as the best source of lutein,
with Chlorella protothecoides being dominant (about 4.6% on dry weight basis) [54]. Other
microalgal species such as Muriellopsis sp. D. salina, Scenedesmus almeriensis and Galdieria
sulphuraria are also exploited for lutein [55]. Although industrial exploitation of natural
lutein is sourced from marigold petals (i.e., 0.03% on dry weight basis), lutein concentrations
in Chlorella protothecoides and Muriellopsis sp. are 150 and 18 times higher compared to
marigold [56].

Fucoxanthin
This compound accounts for about 10% of total carotenoids found in nature. It is
abundant in microalgae when compared with other aquatic plants. Fucoxanthin is a
lipophilic compound characterized by a carotene structure and an oxygenated backbone,
with the presence of functional groups such as hydroxyl, epoxy, carboxyl and carbonyl
moieties [57]. It absorbs light within ranges of 450–540 nm, thus translating light in the
blue-green to yellow-green sections of the visible spectrum. Previous studies have reported
positive bioactive benefits of fucoxanthin-rich foods such as antioxidant, antimicrobial,
anticancer, antihypertensive and many others [58]. These bioactive benefits have been
attributed to different mechanisms of action such as induction of apoptosis, cell cycle arrest,
scavenging of intracellular reactive oxygen species and inhibition of cell proliferation [59].

Astaxanthin
Among the aquatic food chain, microalgae represent the major source of astaxan-
thin [60]. Astaxanthin, a red colored xanthophyll, is the second most exploited microalgae
carotenoid after β-carotene [21]. Among microalgae species, the main producer of astaxan-
thin is Haematococcus pluvialis, with about 81% in relation to its total carotenoid yield of 7%

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on dry weight basis [2]. Besides Haematococcus pluvialis, species such as Chlorella zofingiensis,
Chlorococcum sp. and Scenedesmus sp. can also accrue astaxanthin but at limited levels.
Antioxidant capacity of astaxanthin is 10 times higher compared to lutein, β-carotene,
lycopene and zeaxanthin and even 100 times higher than vitamins C and E [16,41], with
this effectiveness attributed to its structural composition of thirteen conjugated double
bonds. Considering their high antioxidant capacity, astaxanthin-rich microalgae can be
exploited as novel ingredients for functional food development. Currently, this is being
applied by the aquaculture industry, where astaxanthin rich microalgae are used as feed
for fish and crustaceans [61]. For instance, Kim et al. [62] observed that the consumption of
astaxanthin from Haematococcus sp. decreased lipid peroxidation and oxidative damage
among heavy smokers. In another study, Yoshida et al. [63] fed 61 non-obese participants
with an astaxanthin extract (i.e., AstaReal® ) from Haematococcus pluvalis for a period of
two weeks. After the study period, participants fed with astaxanthin formulated diets (i.e.,
12–18 mg/day) showed increased serum HDL and adiponectin levels compared to those
that were fed on placebo.

Zeaxanthin
Zeaxanthin is predominantly produced by microalgal strains of Scenedesmus almeriensis
and Nannochloropsis oculata. Research has proved a simultaneous relationship between
zeaxanthin intake and health benefits such as protection against macular degeneration,
cataracts, cancer and tumors [57]. Koyande et al. [21] associated visual health effects of
zeaxanthin with the presence of nine conjugated double bonds and hydroxyl group in
its chemical structure. This functional structure demonstrates its strong ability to absorb
blue light and protect against retina damage. According to the findings of Ravi et al. [64],
the daily consumption of zeaxanthin (i.e., 400 mg/kg body weight) showed no acute,
sub-chronic toxicity or mutagenic effects. This is an attestation of the safety of zeaxanthin
when consumed at recommended levels. It should also be added that zeaxanthin is not
only beneficial for eye health but also protective against the development of certain cancer
types (e.g., pancreatic and breast cancers) and type 2 diabetes [35].

3.1.3. Chlorophyll
Depending on the microalgal strain and growth conditions, the chlorophyll content
of a cell ranges from 0.5 to 4% of the total dry mass [21]. Chlorophyll is a natural green
pigment crucial in photosynthetic organisms for harvesting of energy from sunlight. They
exist as either chlorophyll a, b or c. However, chlorophyll c is only present in brown algae
and not in green algae [21]. Species of Chlorella are the main producers of chlorophyll,
with other species such as Spirulina and Arthrospira producing limited concentrations [27].
Besides their photosynthetic role, chlorophyll has been shown to exhibit strong antioxidant
capacity. In the recent study of Suparmi et al. [65], sodium-nitrate-treated Wistar rats were
fed chlorophyll extracts (8 and 16 µg/mL) from Sanropus androgynus for 14 days, after which
the authors observed strong antioxidant protection in treated Wistar rats in in vivo studies.

3.2. Phycobiliproteins
Phycobiliproteins are colored hydrophilic proteins capable of absorbing light energy
between wavelength ranges of 470–660 nm [45]. According to their level of light absorption
spectra, phycobiliproteins are divided into four main groups including phycoerythrins
(540–570 nm), phycocyanins (610–620 nm), allophycocyanins (650–6500 nm) and phyco-
erythrocyanins (560–600 nm) [44]. Phycobiliproteins are predominantly found among
cyanobacteria (e.g., Spirulina), red algae (e.g., Porphyridium and Galdieria), cryptophyte
and glaucophyte [66]. Structurally, they are composed of two dissimilar peptide chains
covalently attached to chromophores. In fact, observations by previous researchers led
to the conclusion that the amino acid composition of phycobiliproteins in combination
with the presence of double bonds in their chromophores are primarily responsible for
their wide range of antioxidative capacities [43]. Phycocyanin is a natural, blue-colored

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pigment applied in formulations of confectionary, dairy, snacks and beverages. They offer
health benefits such as anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antioxidative, hepatoprotective and
neuroprotective effects [43,67]. Indeed, the much-advocated health benefits from spirulina
consumption have been widely attributed to its appreciable concentration of phycocyanin.

3.3. Mycosporine-like Amino Acids (MAAs)

Mycosporine-like amino acids (MAAs) exhibit UV absorbance capacities between
310 and 365 nm. Structurally, MAAs are low molecular weight (<400 Da) molecules
composed of either cyclohexenone or cyclohexenimine chromophores conjugated with one
or two amino acids [68]. Notable examples of MAAs include shinorine, palythenic acid,
mycosporine-glycine, mycosporine-taurine, palythine and porphyra-334 [69]. Majority
of MAAs data on health benefits are based on their UV-absorbing capacities, with very
limited literature on food applications. However, taking advantage of their reported free
radical scavenging capacities, the application of MAAs as natural food preservatives can
be postulated. There is the need to investigate other bioactive effects of MAAs besides their
UV-absorbing and free radical scavenging capacities in-order to increase their utilization in
the food industry.

3.4. Phytosterols
Phytosterols are plant-based steroids such as animal cholesterol but vary only in their
carbon side chains and/or the presence of a double bond compared to animal choles-
terol [70]. Phytosterols are made up of two different groups, namely sterols and stanols,
with sterols possessing a double bond in its structure (i.e., making it unsaturated) and
vice versa for the stanols (i.e., making it saturated) [70]. Recently, microalgal phytosterols
are receiving attention from researchers due to their positive health impacts such as anti-
cancer, antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, anti-atherogenicity, cardiovascular protection and
reduction in LDL cholesterol [71].
Microalgae genera such as Dinoflagellates are key producers of 4α-methyl sterols,
Pelagophyceae sp. are dense in 24-propylidenecholesterol, whereas Glaucocystophyte sp.
are not only rich in sitosterols but also campesterol and stigmasterol [72]. Furthermore,
Ahmed et al. [73] reported phytosterol production capacity in 10 microalgae species, with
their work reporting Pavlova lutheri as the best producer of phytosterols (5186 mg/100 g)
among other investigated species such as Tetraselmis sp. and Nannochloropsis sp. Thus,
depicting the sustainable use of microalgae as a phytosterol resource compared to current
options such as canola (Brassica napus L.) and corn (Zea mays) which produce about 820 and
850 mg phytosterol/100 g, respectively.

4. Bioavailability and Health Impacts of Microalgae as Food Ingredients

4.1. Antioxidative Properties
Because the human body is an active respiratory system, there is always the release of
free radicals which can induce oxidative stress [21]. Therefore, to keep free radicals under
control, the body protects itself through the actions of antioxidant enzymes (e.g., catalase
and superoxide dismutase) or dietary antioxidants (e.g., pigments and peptides). Microal-
gae pigments such as phenolic compounds can exhibit antioxidant activities through their
donation of hydrogen atoms to unstable free radicals [2]. Besides microalgae concentration
of phenolic compounds, one important factor that contributes to their antioxidant capacity
is the types of phenolic compounds present in its biomass.
De Jesus Raposo et al. [74] correlated antioxidant capacity of carotenoids with the
presence of conjugated double bonds and specific functional groups such as epoxy, acetyl,
allene and acetylene. Kent et al. [75] observed that peptides from Alexandrium minutum
activated targeted cell death in human lung cancer cell lines (Wi38) at an IC50 value of
0.7 µg/mL with no detrimental effect on normal cells. Ko et al. [26] isolated and cultured a
pentapeptide (amino acid sequence of Leu-Asn-Gly-Asp-Val-Trp) from Chlorella ellipsiodea
with monkey kidney cells exposed to hydrochloride cytotoxicity. From their results, the

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Foods 2022, 11, 1744 9 of 20

pentapeptide at concentrations of 25, 50 and 100 µM enhanced cellular viability against

hydrochloride-induced cytotoxicity by 56.3, 72.3 and 79.4%, respectively.

4.2. Hypertension
Currently, the drug lisinopril is applied for treatment of hypertension but has been
linked with side effects such as dizziness, headache, vomiting and diarrhea [76]. Therefore,
there is a need to explore natural alternatives. Ko et al. [26] observed a positive correlation
between peptides from Chlorella ellipsiodea and the inhibition of the angiotensin-converting
enzyme (ACE), the enzyme responsible for vasoconstriction of blood vessels. The investi-
gated peptide (i.e., Val-Glu-Gly-Tyr amino acid sequence) showed ACE inhibition activity
(IC50 ) of 128.4 µM. From this same study, the authors further observe that Md reduced
systolic blood pressure effects when the investigated peptide fractions were fed to rats via
in vivo studies.

4.3. Antimicrobial
A disc diffusion assay by Desbois et al. [77] showed that PUFAs (i.e., EPA, hexadeca-
trienoic and palmitoleic acids) from Phaeodactylum tricornutum exhibited high antibacterial
activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Scaglioni et al. [78] also investigated antifungal and
anti-mycotoxigenic potential of phenolic extracts from Nannochloropsis sp. and Spirulina
sp. against cultures of Fusarium graminearum in trichothecenes mycotoxins. The authors
observed that, 40 µg/mL of Nannochloropsis sp. phenolic extracts showed 98 and 100% inhi-
bition of acetylates and nivalenol and deoxynivalenol, respectively. Additionally, phenolic
extracts obtained from Spirulina sp. reduced the production of deoxynivalenol, acetylates
and nivalenol by 62, 78 and 100%, respectively.

4.4. Anti-Inflammation
A 100 µg/mL carotenoid extract comprising lutein, violaxanthin, antheraxanthin,
neoxanthin and carotenes from Tetraselmis suecica showed anti-inflammatory effects in
human cells exposed to 30 mM H2 O2 oxidative injury [79]. Saini and Keum [80] also re-
viewed isolated polysaccharides from Chlorella stigmatophora and Phaeodactylum tricornutum
and reported higher anti-inflammatory effects (i.e., IC50 2.25 and 2.92 mg/kg, respec-
tively) in rats exposed to carrageenan-induced paw oedema compared to the synthetic
drug indomethacin (IC50 8.58 mg/kg). Chrysolaminarin, a water soluble β-1,3-D-glucan
isolated from the diatom Synedra acus exhibited anti-proliferative effects against human
colon cancer cell lines DLD-1 and HCT-116, at IC50 values of 47.7 and 54.5 µg/mL, re-
spectively [81]. Additionally, due to the vigorous antioxidant and microbiota regulation
capacities of microalgal fucoxanthin, it is currently being applied for the treatment of
various inflammatory-related diseases [82].

4.5. Anti-Proliferative and Cardiovascular Effects

A study by Murai et al. [83] which involved 86,113 participants (i.e., 40,707 men and
45,406 women) revealed an inverse relationship between seaweed/microalgae consumption
and risk of ischemic heart disease. In another study, animal diets formulated with the
polysaccharide-rich red algae, Rhodella reticulata, resulted in reduced serum cholesterol
levels [84]. From this same study, animals fed with polysaccharide-rich red algae showed
reduced levels of glucose and insulin. From the literature, it is notable that few studies have
investigated the health benefits of microalgal-based bioactive compounds either in vivo or
in vitro. Indeed, if researchers believe that the world population is increasing tremendously
and requires sustainable healthy food systems, then this research gap with microalgal
studies should be addressed with all seriousness. Almeida et al. [85] investigated the effect
of fucoxanthin on cancerous cell lines such as the human bronchopulmonary carcinoma cell
line NSCLC-N6, erythromyeloblastoid leukemia cell line K562 and human lymphoblastoid
cell line TK6. According to their study, all investigated cell lines showed positive effects
upon treatment with fucoxanthin. Similarly, in vivo studies with mice showed reduced

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Foods 2022, 11, 1744 10 of 20

tumor growths of primary effusion lymphoma, sarcomas and osteosarcoma when fed with
microalgal-based fucoxanthin extracts [86].

5. Microalgae Utilization for Food Formulations

Formulation of functional foods from microalgal biomass is expected to increase in
the near future as the global demand for healthy foods increases. As discussed by Nova
et al. [3], the application of microalgae for food formulations has opened a new phase
for the functional food industry, since a continuous search for innovative raw ingredients
targeted for novel food developments exists. However, as discussed in the review of
Nethravathy et al. [87], essential questions to be addressed towards the efficient formulation
of microalgal-based food products include:
1. Interaction of microalgal biomass with other food matrix components;
2. Impact of microalgal addition on food sensory attributes, especially color and taste;
3. Textural and rheological changes in formulated food products upon microalgal formulation;
4. Changes and stability of microalgal compounds upon exposure to processing conditions.
Development of eco-innovative techniques to meet these gaps will help maximize
the utilization of microalgal-based ingredients in the current competitive functional food
marketspace. Currently, the food industry is applying whole microalgal biomass or their
extracted purified compounds as novel ingredients for the formulation of food products
such as baked goods, pasta, noodles, plant-based milk, soups and many others, with a
reflection of improved techno-functional and nutritional properties as depicted in Figure 3
and Table 2.

Table 2. Nutritional and techno-functional properties of microalgae-based formulated food products.

Food Product Genus/Species Formulation Levels Measured Effects References

Whole A. platensis (0.3, 0.6 and
Biscuits Arthrospira platensis 0.9%); phycocyanin extract: Increased nutritional properties [88]
0.3% w/w to wheat flour
Improved techno-functional attributes
1.63, 3, 5, 7 and 8.36% w/w to
Biscuits Arthrospira platensis and enhanced protein, fiber and [89]
wheat flour
antioxidant levels
Arthrospira platensis,
Chlorella vulgaris, Improved techno-functional and
Biscuits 2 and 6% w/w to wheat flour [90]
Tetraselmis suecica and antioxidant properties
P. tricornutum
Extracted astaxanthin powder at 5, Enhanced techno-functional and
Cookies Haematococcus pluvialis [91]
10 and 15% w/w to wheat flour antioxidant properties
Improved techno-functional attributes,
Bread Arthrospira platensis 11% w/w to flour [92]
protein and mineral levels
Isochrysis galbana,
Bread Tetraselmis suecica, S. 0.47% w/w to wheat flour Increased techno-functional attributes [93]
almeriensis, and N. gaditana
0.4, 1.0, 1.8, 2.6, and 3.2%, Increased techno- functional attributes
Extruded snacks Arthrospira sp. [94]
w/w to flour and protein levels
0.5, 1.0, 2.0 and 3.0%, w/w to
Butter cookies Chlorella vulgaris Improved textural and color attributes [95]
wheat flour
Improved concentrations of protein, iron
Biscuits Spirulina maxima 5, 10 and 15%, w/w of wheat flour [96]
and PUFAs
Improved techno-functional and
Chlorella sp. 3, 6, 9 and 12%, w/w of wheat flour [97]
sensory attributes
Cookies
Increased textural and colour properties;
Spirulina platensis 0, 1, 2 and 3%, w/w of wheat flour [98]
low overall sensory quality

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Foods 2022, 11, 1744 11 of 20

Table 2. Cont.

Food Product Genus/Species Formulation Levels Measured Effects References

Enhanced techno-functionalities, protein,
Chlorella vulgaris and 2.5, 5, 7.5, 10, 12.5, 15, 20 and 25 g,
Noodles ash and dietary fiber; reduced [99]
Spirulina platensis w/w of wheat flour
carbohydrate content
Enhanced techno-functionalities, protein,
Spirulina platensis 5, 10 and 20 g, w/w to wheat flour phenolics and antioxidant properties; [100]
limited protein digestibility
Foods 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW
Pasta Improved protein, minerals, antioxidants, 11 of 21
Dunaliella salina 0, 1, 2 and 3%, w/w to wheat flour [101]
techno-functional and sensory properties
Chlorella vulgaris and Elevated techno-functional and sensory
0.5, 1 and 2%, w/w of wheat flour [102]
Spirulina maxima qualities
Noodles Spirulina sp.
Development of eco-innovative techniques to
3–5%, w/w of wheat flour
meet these gaps will help maximize
Improved nutritional quality [103]
the
utilization of microalgal-based ingredients in the current competitive functional food mar-
Protein drink Spirulina sp. 10–12% Improved protein content [103]
ketspace. Currently, the food industry is applying whole microalgal biomass or their ex-
Noodles Chlorella sp. - Enhanced nutritional value [103]
tracted purified compounds as novel ingredients for the formulation of food products
Energy bar Chlorella sp. as baked goods, pasta,
such 5–10% noodles, plant-basedEnhanced protein content
milk, soups and many others,[103]with a
Burger Chlorella sp. 50% Improved textural and sensory
reflection of improved techno-functional and nutritional properties as qualities
depicted in[104]
Figure
3 and Table 2.

Soups/sauces
Antioxidative
Cookies
Antihypertensive
Antiproliferative
Bread

Beverages
Microalgae biomass
Antimicrobial Anticholesterol
Noodles/pastas

Ice cream

Anticardiovascular
Anticoagulant Spreads

Yoghurt
Anti-
Eye health
inflammatory
Cheese

Health Benefits Food Applications

Figure 3.
Figure Schematic description
3. Schematic description of
of microalgae
microalgae health
health benefits
benefits and
and potential
potential food
food applications.
applications.

5.1. Snacks
Table 2. Nutritional and techno-functional properties of microalgae-based formulated food products.

Food Product Due to the increasing

Genus/Species busy lifestyle
Formulation Levels of modern-day Measured consumers,
Effects there is a high de-
References
mand for snacks that are not only cheap but also convenient and healthy. Lucas and his
Whole A. platensis (0.3, 0.6
colleagues [94] formulated snacks with A. platensis (at 2.6%, w/w) and observed enhanced
and 0.9%); phycocyanin
Biscuits levelsplatensis
Arthrospira of protein, minerals and lipids at 22.6, 46.4 andnutritional
Increased 28.1%, respectively,
properties compared [88] to
the control. The authors 0.3%
extract: w/w to wheat
also observed a positive coloration of the developed snacks as
impacted by A. platensis with flour
no negative effect on its texture, flavor and taste, with an
overall sensory acceptability of 82%. Similarly, Improved Bolanho ettechno-functional
al. [105] developed cookies from
A. platensis at levels 1.63,of3,25,and
7 and5%8.36%
(w/w).w/w Accordingattributes
to theirandstudy,
enhanced the highest formula-
Biscuits Arthrospira platensis [89]
tion level of 5%, reported to wheat
maximumflourlevels ofprotein,
protein,fiber
fiberand andantioxidant
ash compared to their 2
and 0% formulated cookie counterparts. However, fromlevels their sensory studies, cookies
formulated
Arthrospira platensis, with 5% A. platensis reported the lowest score for consumer acceptability. Thus,
this evidence
Chlorella vulgaris, confirms the report of
2 and 6% w/w to wheat Nethravathy et al. [87] that
Improved techno-functional a major challenge for the
Biscuits microalgae-based microalgae[90]
Tetraselmis suecica and P. food industry flour is finding theand rightantioxidant
balance betweenproperties formu-
lation
tricornutumlevel, product health quality and final consumer acceptability. Without the proper
answer to these gaps, the microalgae-based food industry will suffer major market draw-
Extracted astaxanthin
Enhanced techno-functional
Cookies Haematococcus pluvialis powder at 5, 10 and 15% [91]
and antioxidant properties
w/w to wheat flour
Improved techno-functional
Downloaded from [Link] by [Link], on 12/18/25.
Bread Arthrospira platensis
Subject 11%
to the CABI Digital w/w
Library to flour
Terms & Conditions,attributes, protein and mineral [92]
available at [Link]
 Foods 2022, 11, 1744 12 of 20

backs. In another study, cookies formulated with astaxanthin extract from Haematococcus
Foods 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 21
pluvialis showed improved nutritional, antioxidant and phenolic profiles [106]. An example
of a microalgae-formulated snack is displayed in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Snacks
Figure enriched
4. Snacks with
enriched withdifferent
differentsubstitution levels(2(2and
substitution levels and6%)
6%)ofofmicroalgae
microalgae biomass.
biomass. Ap— Ap—A.
platensis; Cv—C. vulgaris; Ts—T. suecica; Pt—P. tricornutum. Figure adapted from Batista et al.
A. platensis; Cv—C. vulgaris; Ts—T. suecica; Pt—P. tricornutum. Figure adapted from Batista et al. [90].[90].

[Link]. Bread
Bread
Undoubtably,bread
Undoubtably, breadis isone one of the
of the mostmost widely
widely consumed
consumed foodfood products
products globally
globally [107,108]. Based on the wide consumption and popularity of bread, develop-
[107,108]. Based on the wide consumption and popularity of bread, developing functional
ing functional bread will be a great vehicle for global food and nutrition security. In an
bread will bestudy
interesting a greatbyvehicle for global food
Uribe-Wandurraga et [Link] nutrition
[108], security.
breadsticks In anwith
formulated interesting
Chlorellastudy
by vulgaris
Uribe-Wandurraga
and A. platensis etreported
al. [108],increased
breadstickslevelsformulated
of iron and with Chlorella
selenium, vulgaris
as well as colorand A.
platensis reported
and texture increased
stability over a levels
storageofperiod
iron and
of 15selenium, as welltoastheir
days, compared color and texture
control forms. sta-
bility over a storage
In another period
study, bread of 15 days,
developed withcompared to their
3 g of Chlorella control
vulgaris per forms.
100 g ofInwheat
another
flourstudy,
showed
bread improved
developed withviscoelastic and rheological
3 g of Chlorella vulgaris perproperties,
100 g ofcompared
wheat flourto the controlimproved
showed and
formulations above 3 g [109]. Hafsa et al. [110] formulated bread
viscoelastic and rheological properties, compared to the control and formulations with A. platensis at 1 andabove
3% (w/w) substitution levels. From their study, although 3% formulation
3 g [109]. Hafsa et al. [110] formulated bread with A. platensis at 1 and 3% (w/w) substitu- increased bread
concentrations of minerals, protein and fat, this formulation level scored reduced consumer
tion levels. From their study, although 3% formulation increased bread concentrations of
acceptability due to the green color impacted to the bread from microalgae. Thus, this
minerals,
evidenceprotein and previous
agrees with fat, this literature
formulation level
that the scored reduced
purchasing power of consumer
a food productacceptability
also
duedepends
to the green color impacted to the bread from microalgae. Thus, this
on its sensory attribute besides nutrition. Additionally, crostini formulated with evidence agrees
withdifferent levels (0, 2, 6 and 10%, w/w) of A. platensis (Figure 5) showed increased protein,on its
previous literature that the purchasing power of a food product also depends
sensory attribute
phycocyanin andbesides nutrition.
total phenolic Additionally,
contents crostini
with increasing formulated
formulation with
levels, different
although thislevels
(0, trend resulted
2, 6 and in reduced
10%, w/w) in vitro digestibility
of A. platensis [106]. Moreover,
(Figure 5) showed increasedsensory analysis
protein, showed and
phycocyanin
comparable
total phenolic acceptance
contents with for 2% microalgae
increasing formulated levels,
formulation crostinialthough
with the control. Therefore,
this trend resulted in
this suggests the strong need for a balance between microalgae food
reduced in vitro digestibility [106]. Moreover, sensory analysis showed comparable formulation, nutrition ac-
and consumer acceptability.
ceptance for 2% microalgae formulated crostini with the control. Therefore, this suggests
the strong need for a balance between microalgae food formulation, nutrition and con-
sumer acceptability.

Downloaded from [Link] by [Link], on 12/18/25.

Subject to the CABI Digital Library Terms & Conditions, available at [Link]
 sensory attribute besides nutrition. Additionally, crostini formulated with different levels
(0, 2, 6 and 10%, w/w) of A. platensis (Figure 5) showed increased protein, phycocyanin and
total phenolic contents with increasing formulation levels, although this trend resulted in
reduced in vitro digestibility [106]. Moreover, sensory analysis showed comparable ac-
ceptance for 2% microalgae formulated crostini with the control. Therefore, this suggests
Foods 2022, 11, 1744 13 of 20
the strong need for a balance between microalgae food formulation, nutrition and con-
sumer acceptability.

Foods 2022, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 14 of 21

Sourdough crostini
Figure 5. Sourdough crostini developed
developedfromfromA. [Link]
platensisF&M-C256
F&M-C256atatformulation
formulationlevels
levels2,2,66and
and
10%, w/w. C—control;Ap—
w/w. C—control; Ap—A. A. platensis
platensis. .Figure
Figureadapted
adaptedfrom
fromNiccolai
Niccolaietetal.
al.[106];
[106];Source—Springer
Source—
Springer Nature; [Link]
Nature; [Link] accessed
accessed onApril
on 27 27 April
2022; no
2022; no were
changes changes were
made made
to the to the
figure in figure in re-printing.
re-printing.

5.3. Others
5.3. Others
Different food
Different food types
types formulated with Spirulina
formulated with Spirulina sp.
sp. are
are presented
presented in
in Figure
Figure 6.
6.

Figure
Figure 6.6. Different
Differentfood
foodformulations
formulationsfrom
fromSpirulina
[Link].
((a)((a)
isotonic beverages;
isotonic (b) (b)
beverages; cereal bars;
cereal (c)
bars;
instant soup; (d) pudding; (e) cake powder mix; (f) biscuit). Adapted with permission from [111],
(c) instant soup; (d) pudding; (e) cake powder mix; (f) biscuit). Adapted with permission from [111],
2016, Elsevier Ltd.
2016, Elsevier Ltd.

In
In one
one study, Chlorella vulgaris
study, Chlorella vulgaris formulated
formulated with
with spreadable
spreadable processed cheese at
processed cheese at levels
levels
of 2, 44 and
of 2, and 6%
6% (w/w)
(w/w) showed
showed enhanced
enhanced magnesium,
magnesium, potassium,
potassium, selenium,
selenium, zinc,zinc, iron
iron and
and
antioxidant potential, with this trend increasing with high formulation
antioxidant potential, with this trend increasing with high formulation levels [112]. A func- levels [112]. A
functional yoghurt formulated with omega-3-rich lipid extract from
tional yoghurt formulated with omega-3-rich lipid extract from Pavlova lutheri improved the Pavlova lutheri im-
proved the concentration
concentration of n-3 PUFAoffor n-3 PUFA for
enhanced enhanced anti-inflammatory
anti-inflammatory effects. However,effects. However,
although the
although the study reported improved health benefits of the microalgae-formulated
study reported improved health benefits of the microalgae-formulated yoghurt, the authors yo-
ghurt, the authors
also observed alsoconsumer
limited observedacceptability
limited consumer acceptability
upon sensory upon sensory
evaluation. In another evaluation.
detailed
In
in another detailed
vivo study, in vivo
1264.69 mg ofstudy, 1264.69 mg
omega-3-rich of oil
algal omega-3-rich algal oil from
from Schizochytrium sp. wasSchizochytrium
formulated
sp. was
with formulated
yoghurt and fedwith yoghurt
to 11 and fed
participants to 11
[113]. participants
After 21 days of[113]. After
feeding, 21 days of feeding,
participants fed with
participants fed withsignificantly
formulated yoghurt formulatedshowed
yoghurthigher
significantly
levels of showed highern-3-PUFA
bioavailable levels of bioavaila-
compared
ble n-3-PUFA
to those compared
fed with to thoseyoghurt.
unformulated fed with unformulated yoghurt.
Consumption
Consumption of of soup
soupisisdefined
definedasasaahealthy
healthydietary
dietarylifestyle
lifestyle dueduetoto
itsits composition
composition of
of different
different plant-based
plant-based foods
foods suchsuch as legumes,
as legumes, tubers
tubers and vegetables
and vegetables [3]. Lafarga
[3]. Lafarga et al. et al.
[114]
[114] developed
developed broccoli
broccoli soup soup formulated
formulated with with 0.5 2%
0.5 and andlevels
2% levels
(w/v) (w/v) of Arthrospira,
of Arthrospira, Chlo-
Chlorella
rella and Tetraselmis
and Tetraselmis species.
species. UponUpon simulated
simulated gastrointestinal
gastrointestinal digestion,
digestion, the authors
the authors observed ob-
served
enhanced enhanced antioxidant
antioxidant capacitycapacity
with high with high
levels oflevels of bioaccessible
bioaccessible polyphenolspolyphenols (i.e.,
(i.e., between
between 32.9 and 45.6 mg/100 mL) for each microalgae/broccoli-formulated soup. Irre-
spective of the improved nutritional value, the authors observed reduced sensory accept-
ability with increasing levels of microalgae formulation. In contrast to this study, Los et
al. [115] formulated a dehydrated soup with
Downloaded A. platensis at 15% (w/w),
from [Link] resultingonin
by [Link], im-
12/18/25.
Subject to the CABI Digital Library Terms & Conditions, available at [Link]
Foods 2022, 11, 1744 14 of 20

32.9 and 45.6 mg/100 mL) for each microalgae/broccoli-formulated soup. Irrespective
of the improved nutritional value, the authors observed reduced sensory acceptability
with increasing levels of microalgae formulation. In contrast to this study, Los et al. [115]
formulated a dehydrated soup with A. platensis at 15% (w/w), resulting in improved
nutritional value (i.e., protein, fiber, chlorophyll, lipids and antioxidant capacity), with no
compromise on acceptability when subjected to sensory evaluation. Based on these reports,
there is a need for in-depth studies on formulation strategies that will enable effective
microalgal food substitutions (i) for improved functionality and (ii) no/limited sacrifice of
sensory quality.

6. Safety Concerns and Acceptability of Microalgae-Based Food Products

The effective contribution of microalgae to human nutrition has great potential. How-
ever, the acceptance and application of microalgae for functional food development will be
greatly defined by their safety to human health. For instance, the FDA in United States has
defined microalgal-based products as “other dietary supplements” with the consumption
of strains such as Spirulina, Dunaliella, Chlorella, Haematococcus, C. cohnii, P. cruentum and
Schizochytrium reported as GRAS. Compared to the United States, other countries such as
Canada, Australia and New Zealand approve the consumption of limited microalgal strains
including Spirulina and Chlorella [93]. These limitations are due to the dearth data available
with respect to the safety and efficacy of microalgae-based food products/ingredients.
However, the few available literature studies on different species of Spirulina and Chlorella
have shown non-toxic concentrations of heavy metals, pesticides, antibiotics and myco-
toxins. Notwithstanding, there is the need for continuous screening of dietary microalgal
strains due to the reported presence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) above
nutritional threshold levels [116]. Another possible factor for the low application of mi-
croalgae in the functional food industry may also be caused by the limited data on human
allergic reactions. To increase their utilization and consumer acceptance, there is a need
for in-depth research on microalgal allergic compounds, along with the demand of reg-
ulatory bodies to ensure food industries cite these possible effects on microalgal-based
food labels. Additionally, some researchers and food processors argue on the dominating
presence of pigments in different microalgal strains as a possible limiting factor in food
applications, with reference to its possible negative effects on taste, color, flavor and other
techno-functional properties. However, it can also be discussed that this is not always the
case as the effect of a pigment will depend on the type of food product, as well as the group
of consumers being considered as a target market.
Another safety concern associated with food applications of microalgae is the high
concentration of nucleic acid in its biomass, which has been linked to the negative effects of
uric acid (i.e., responsible for gout and kidney stones) in consumers upon metabolism [87].
For example, toxins such as microcystin are elicited by Microcystis aeruginosa, anatoxin by
Anabaena flos-aquae and saxitoxin by Aphanizomenon flos-aquae, with these toxic compounds
associated with risks of gastrointestinal tract, liver, synapse and nerve axon function-
ing [117]. Thus, this provokes the conclusion that microalgae cultivation and processing
when not conducted under safe conditions and continuous monitoring can lead to detri-
mental health. Overall, to ensure the safety and nutritional value of microalgal strains
intended for human consumption, it is crucial for food industries to commercially cultivate
microalgae under controlled environments compared to natural habitats such as lakes
and ponds, since this approach can be less costly and also offer an efficient and consis-
tent avenue for the industry to monitor key cultivation factors (e.g., water quality) which
contribute to the possible accumulation of toxic compounds.

7. Challenges, Future Perspectives and Conclusions

With the predicted increase in global populations and climate changes, the future is
faced with an unprecedented pressure for sustainable food resources capable of providing
health benefits beyond basic nutrition. In this regard, microalgae are natural resources that

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Foods 2022, 11, 1744 15 of 20

can help meet this gap from the standpoint of sustainability, renewability and nutrition at a
cheaper cost. However, some major obstacles concerning the utilization of microalgae as
functional foods include accessibility, availability, sustainable techniques for extraction and
purification of its metabolites, functional structure preservation during and after extraction
and or in a multidimensional food matrix, bioavailability of extracted metabolites in the
human gastrointestinal tract upon consumption, safety and sensory quality in formulated
food products.
Although genetic engineering has been employed to enhance microalgal composi-
tion of bioactive metabolites, there still exists a large proportion of the population with
less acceptance and myths for genetically modified foods [118]. In this framework, less
attention has been paid on how physical techniques (e.g., pulsed electric field and ultra-
sonication) and abiotic environmental factors (e.g., pH, temperature, and light) can be
manipulated to improve microalgal yield of bioactive metabolites via the induction of
oxidative stress, a biotechnological approach known as elicitation. This approach can be
proposed as an all-inclusive consumer approach to providing bioactive-rich microalgal
biomass. However, investigations on metabolic pathways associated with the production
of microalgal bioactive metabolites are also needed, since they will help exploit elicitation
techniques targeted for optimized yield of bioactive metabolites. Thus, opening the door
for an economically efficient large-scale production and utilization of microalgae as novel
sustainable food systems.
With respect to the preservation of bioactive compounds from microalgal biomass
during extraction and purification, there is the need to develop methods that cannot
only optimize extraction yield but also protect the biochemical structures of less-stable
bioactive compounds along the process, especially its functional hydroxyl groups. Another
challenge concerning the functionality of microalgae-based bioactive compounds is the
fact that a majority of their health benefits are reported with in vitro studies which mimic
the human gastrointestinal tract and cannot be the same in reality. For instance, it has
been well established that the passage of polyphenols, irrespective of the food matrix, in
the stomach result in some being hydrolyzed, with about 90–95% passing into the large
intestinal lumen [119]. Thus, it is very important to conduct clinical in vivo studies to not
only elucidate the bioaccessibility, bioavailability and biological effects of their bioactive
compounds, but to also confirm no side-effects upon consumption.
The pre-dominant sensory issues associated with microalgae-based food products
are their intense color and fishy taste/aroma [120]. However, the food industry is taking
advantage of the intense color, depending on the type of food product being developed
and targeted consumers, as widely reported in the literature and many start-ups. Certainly,
techniques such as nanotechnology and the use of safe molecules that act as inhibitors
against bitter/astringent receptors are great avenues that can be exploited by the food
industry for improved sensory acceptance of microalgae-based foods. Furthermore, it
appears as if a majority of microalgae-based foods on the market are in the beverages, baked
goods, and snack categories, with very limited application as pro/pre-biotics, although
they have the potential for this purpose. A possible way to bridge this is the channeling of
resources into the study of how microalgae grow and survive when being delivered alive
through foods, as well as their functionalities in the human gut microbiota.
Furthermore, to increase the industrial utilization of microalgae for functional foods,
there is a need to develop sustainable and eco-innovative processing techniques that
are efficient for the transformation of raw microalgal biomass into value-added food
products or isolated nutraceutical ingredients without compromising on their nutritional
and environmental effects. With respect to the sustainable processing of microalgal biomass,
novel non-thermal processing techniques such as fermentation, ultrasonication, pulsed
electric field, microwave and enzyme-assisted processing can be very efficient in helping
protect their nutritional value during processing while ensuring food safety concurrently.
Lastly, with the increased wide choice of functional foods on the market, there is a need
for effective collaboration between researchers and microalgal-based industries to better

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Foods 2022, 11, 1744 16 of 20

understand industrial loopholes and consumer needs. This will help guide the design of
research outlines that will provide in-depth data on nutritional gaps, especially in vivo
bioaccessibility, bioavailability and health benefits of functional compounds associated
with microalgae consumption. Nevertheless, whatever the case, food industries should
fully address rules and regulations governing the safety, quality and labelling of microalgal-
based functional foods before commercialization.

Author Contributions: J.A.: Conceptualization, literature review, writing—original draft, review

and editing. L.A.: Writing—review and editing. All authors have read and agreed to the published
version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research did not receive any funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data are contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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