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APPLIED PHYSICS
LECTURE NOTES
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Ibrahimpatnam, Ranga Reddy (District) - 501 506.

UNIT - III: DIELECTRIC, MAGNETIC MATERIALS & SUPERCONDUCTIVITY

Topics:
Dielectric Materials:
 Basic definitions
 Types of polarizabilities (electronic, Ionic& dipolar) (qualitative)
 Ferroelectric Materials-Applications
 Piezoelectric Materials-Applications
 Pyroelectric Materials –Applications

Magnetic Materials:
 Magnetic moment
 Magnetostriction
 Magneto resistance Hysteresis
 Soft and Hard magnetic materials – Applications
 Bubble memory devices

Superconductivity:
 Properties of Superconductors
 Meissner’s effect
 Flux quantization
 Type- I Super conductors
 Type-II Superconductors
 Applications of Superconductors

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Dielectric Materials:
 Dielectrics are insulating materials. In dielectrics, all electrons are bound to their parent molecules
and there are no free charges.
 Even with normal voltage or thermal energy electrons are not released.
 Dielectrics are nonmetallic materials of high specific resistance and have negative temperature
coefficient of resistance.
 Dielectrics are electrical insulators. They possess high resistivity values within the range 106 m to
1016 m. Under high voltage bias, they allow very little current. They with stand for very high
voltages. The conduction is mostly associated with ionic motion through defects or hopping of
charges. They have no free charges. The electrical properties of a dielectric are associated with
inherent property of possessing electric dipoles.
 Dielectrics are the materials having electric dipole moment permanently or temporarily by
applying electric field. These are mainly used to store electrical energy and as electrical insulators.
All dielectrics are electrical insulators. But all electrical insulators need not be dielectrics. For
example the vacuum is a perfect insulator. But it is not a dielectric. The study of dielectrics is
essentially study of insulators.

Basic definitions
Electric dipole: Two unlike charges separated by a small distance is called dipole.

Dipole moment (µ): it is the product of displaced charge and separation between the charges. Charge
(q) and separation/displacement (r).
Units: Coulombs-meter
Polarizability (α): It is a measure of degree of dipole moment in an electric field or dipole moment per
unit electric filed
𝝁α
𝝁=
= µ/ =polarizability
𝒂𝒓𝒂 – are the units of µ
Electric polarization (P): The process of formation of induced dipoles when the dielectric material is
subjected to external electric filed is known as electric or dielectric polarization.
𝑷α
𝑷=χ
where χ is electric susceptibility
P can also be defined as induced charges per unit area/volume (or)
The average dipole moment per unit volume = 𝑔

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=
where N- number of dipoles in the substance
Electric Susceptibility (χ): It measures the degree of polarization of a given dielectric
when it is subjected to external electric field.
𝝌 = 𝑷/
Electric displacement vector or Electric flux density (D): the number of electric field lines passing
through unit area (or) the surface charge per unit area/volume
α
=𝜀
Permittivity (  )
Permittivity is the ability of dielectric material that stores electrical energy when the dialectic material
is subjected to electric field.
Dielectric constant or Relative Permittivity (εr):
The dielectric characteristics of a material are determined by the dielectric constant of that material.
Dielectric constant is the ratio of permittivity with the medium to the permittivity without medium
(free space/vacuum).

 r  ;  0  8.854  1012 F / m free space permittivity.
0
It is a dimensionless quantity
Dielectric strength

It is defined as the minimum voltage required producing dielectric break down.

Dielectric strength decreases with rising of temperature, humidity and age of the material.

Types of dielectric substances

Dielectrics are categorized based on the type of molecule present in the material. There are two types
of dielectrics – Polar dielectrics and Non-polar dielectrics.
Polar: In polar dielectrics, the centre of mass of positive particles does not coincide with the centre of
mass of negative particles. Here the dipole moment exists but in random manner. When the electric
field is applied the molecules align themselves with the electric field. When the electric field is
removed random dipole moment is observed and the net dipole moment in the molecules becomes
zero. Examples: H2O, CO2, etc,

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Nonpolar: In the non-polar dielectrics, the centre of mass of positive particles and negative particles
coincide. There is no dipole moment in these molecules but when the material is subjected to electric
field then it exhibits net dipole moment.
E
Examples: H2, N2, O2, etc,

Types of polarizations
Dielectric polarization is the displacement of charge particles with the applied electric field. The
displacement of electric charges results in formation of electric dipole moment in atoms, ions or
molecules of the material. There are four different types of polarization, they are listed below.
1. Electric polarization
2. Ionic polarization
3. Orientational or dipolar polarization
4. Space charge polarization

1. Electronic Polarization:
The displacement of the positively charged nucleus and the negatively charged electrons of an atom in
opposite directions, on application of an electric field, result in electronic polarization.

 It is extremely rapid
 Most common phenomenon that happens in all atoms
 It occurs in the optical frequency range (~1015 Hz)
 Temperature independent
 electronic polarisation is 𝑷 = 𝑵

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Ionic Polarization:
This phenomenon occurs in ionic solids such as NaCl, KBr, and LiBr. When an electric field is applied to
an ionic solid the positive and negative ions displace to their respective polarities creating an electric
dipole this is called as ionic polarization.

 It slow when compared with electronic polarizability

 It happens in ionic crystals due to displacement of ions
 It occurs in IR frequency (~1013𝐻𝑧)
 Temperature independent
 The ionic polarization is given by 𝑷 = 𝑵 where is the ionic polarizability.

Orientation Polarization:
Occurs only in polar molecules (the molecules which have permanent dipole moment eg: H 2O, Phenol,
etc.). When an electric field is applied to a polar molecule, the dipoles experience a torque and try to
align parallel to the applied field.

 It is slower than electronic & ionic polarizations

 It happens in polar substances
 It occurs in Radio-Micro wave frequency range (106 − 1010𝐻𝑧)
 It decreases with increasing temperature as it disaligns the permanent dipoles
 The ionic polarization is given by 𝑷o = 𝑵 o where o is the ionic polarizability
2
0 
 It is given by 3kT

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4. Space charge polarization:

Occurs due to the accumulation of charges at the electrodes or at interfaces in a multiphase material.
The space-charge polarization occurs due to the diffusion of ions, along the field direction, thereby
giving rise to redistribution of charges in the dielectrics. Space charge polarization occurs in
multiphase dielectric materials in which there is a change of resistivity between different phases. The
space charge polarization is not an important factor in most common dielectrics.

Interfacial or space charge polarization occurs when there is an accumulation of charge at an interface
between two materials or between two regions within a material because of an external field. This can
occur when there is a compound dielectric, or when there are two electrodes connected to a dielectric
material. This polarization is usually observed in amorphous or polycrystalline solids. The electric field
will cause a charge imbalance. Mobile charges in the dielectric will migrate over to maintain charge
neutrality. This then causes interfacial polarization.

Total polarization is given by = + 𝑷 + 𝑷𝒐.

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Ferroelectric Materials-Applications
Some materials (below a certain temperature) possess spontaneous polarization even when electric
field is not applied. These materials have acquired electric dipole moment even no field is applied.
These materials are known as Ferro electrics. And this phenomenon is known as Ferro electricity.

Ferro Electric Materials

There are 3 main types of crystal structure in Ferro electric materials. They are

 Rochelle salt structure also called as Sodium Potassium Tartrate i.e 𝐻 𝐻 }

 The perovskite group consisting of Titanates & Niobates (Eg:- Barium Titanate i.e })
 The dihydrogen Phosphates & Arsenates (Eg:- 𝐻 })

Some other examples of ferro electric materials are:

 Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (N𝐻 𝐻 P )

 Lithium Niobate (LiNb )
 Potassium Niobate (KNb ) etc

Properties of Ferro electric materials

 The Ferro electric materials posses‟ spontaneous polarization below a certain temperature.
 As temperature increases the spontaneous polarization decreases and at a particular temp, the
spontaneous polarization vanishes. This temperature is called Curie temperature. It is defined as
the temperature at which Ferro electric material converts into a Para electric material.

Fig. Spontaneous polarization with respect to temperature (b) Variation of with respect to
temperature

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 Below Tc - curie temperature; the dielectric material possesses Ferro electric property. As temperature
increases the dielectric constant reduces after ‘Tc’. It is shown in the figure.

Fig. 9 Variation of dielectric constant with temperature

From curie-Weiss law =

= Dielectric constant, =curie constant,

= absolute temperature, =curie temperature

 The Ferro electrics exhibit the property called Piezo–electricity & Pyroelectricity.
 “Piezo electricity” means when mechanical stress is applied to Ferro electric materials then the
opposite charges are formed on the surface of crystal generating electricity. [In Greek „piezo‟
means pressure]
 “Pyro electricity” means the change of Spontaneous Polarization of Ferro electric materials by
the application of temperature. [In Greek “Pyro means Heat]
 Ferro electric materials also exhibit the property called “Di-electric Hysteresis”
 Dielectric Hysteresis: It is defined as the lagging of polarization behind the electric field
applied. The area of the loop represents the dielectric loss.

Applications of Ferro Electric Materials

 The Ferro electrics have high dielectric constant . They are used in small sized capacitors to
produce large capacitance.
 As they satisfy Dielectric Hysteresis property; they can be used as memory devices in
computers.
 Piezo-electric transducers are used to produce & to detect sound waves.
 Pyro electric behavior in Ferro electrics is used to detect infrared radiation.
 They are used in electro mechanical filters.

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Piezoelectric Materials-Applications
The development of electrical charges and electric polarization when subjected to stress is called
“Piezo-electric effect”. This phenomenon was discovered by “Curie Brothers in 1880”.

 Crystals like quartz, Tourmaline, Rochelle salt when subjected to compression or tension then
opposite charges develop on their surfaces.
 The materials also exhibit “Inverse Piezo Electric Effect”. That is on these substances when
electric field is applied, they get strained. That means the dimensions gets changed. The
crystals either expand (or) contract.
 001 also under do vibrations.
 All Ferro electrics are Piezo electric. But all Piezo electric materials need not necessarily be
Ferro electric.
 Example:- Barium Titanate exhibits both Ferro electricity and Piezo electricity.
 Quartz is only Piezo electric.

Piezo electricity in quartz crystal

Quartz is silicon dioxide (SiO2). The atoms are arranged in the form of Hexagon. The quartz consists of
three axes: X-axis known as Electrical axis, Y-axis known as Mechanical axis & Z- axis known as
Optical axis. When external stress is not applied, all the charges get balanced. Hence net polarization is
zero. When external stress is applied, the balance is disturbed. Hence crystal is polarized. As a result,
electrical charge is developed on the faces. The structure of quartz is shown in the figure below.

Fig. Piezo electric effect in quartz crystal

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Applications of Piezo electric materials

 In case of Inverse Piezo electric effect, If a quartz plate is subjected to an alternating electric
field, the quartz crystal expands or contracts.
 This also undergoes vibrations. If the frequency of vibration of quartz crystal is equal to
ultrasonic frequency, then the ultrasonic waves are produced. Hence quartz oscillator is used
to produce ultrasonic waves.
 Rochelle salt- a dielectric material is used in gramophones, earphones, hearing aids,
 microphones etc.
 Barium titanate, lead zirconate, lead titanate is used high voltage generation. A transducer is a
device which converts one form of energy into another. Piezo electric effect can be utilized to
convert force, pressure, and strain into electrical voltages.
 Acceleration transducers are used to measure acceleration.
 Piezo electric crystals are used to produce radio frequency waves for broad casting.
 They are used in quartz watches to maintain accurate time.

Pyroelectric Materials –Applications

Pyro electric effect is the change in spontaneous polarization when the temperature of the specimen is
changed.

Explanation
Many Piezo-electric materials, such as tourmaline, have the tendency to exhibit a change in internal
electrical polarization as a response to temperature changes.
An electric field develops in a pyro-electric crystal because of temperature change.
Pyro-electricity requires the pressure of permanent electric dipoles (whose magnitude is affected
because of temperature changes).
It is possible to detect a change of coulomb with a suitable electrometer, temperature changes
as small as °C can be measured using the pyro electric effect.

Applications

 The Pyro- electric materials such as BaTiO3, LiNibO3 etc are used to make very good Infra-red
detectors which can operate at room temperature.
 Materials such as TGS, NaNO2 and PZT ceramics are used in the construction of pyroelectric
image tubes.
 Used in burglar alarms, which detect the thermal radiation from Human body.

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Magnetic Materials:
Introduction

The magnetic materials play a prominent role in modern technology. They are widely used in industrial
electronics, entertainment electronics and computer industry. A basic understanding of the magnetic
phenomena is essential to appreciate the operating principles of the various magnetic devices.

A magnetic material is a substance which can attract or repel other substances under the influence of
its magnetic field. The action of attracting or repelling a substance depends on the alignment of atomic
magnetic moments in the substance in the presence of external magnetic field. All materials are
affected in some way or the other by a magnetic field. However, not all materials react the same way.

Magnetic Field: It is a region around a magnet where other magnetic materials experience a force. Or
Magnetic field can be described by imaginary lines of force around a magnet which enables other
magnetic materials to get repelled or attracted towards it.

Fig 1: Magnetic field

Properties of Magnetic Field Lines

i. The Magnetic field lines enter the south pole and comes out of the north pole forming closed
loops.
ii. The magnetic field lines are strong near the poles of the magnet.
iii. There is no chance of magnetic field lines intersecting each other.
iv. More the closeness of the magnetic field lines, more is the strength of magnetic field.
Pole strength (m): The ability of a pole of magnet to attract or repel another magnetic poleis called
it`s pole strength.
Magnetic dipole: It`s a system consisting of two equal and opposite magnetic polesseparated
by a small distance of 2l
Or
Two poles of equal strength separated by a very small distance is called a magnetic dipole.
Magnetic dipole moment (𝛍m): It can define in three ways depending on situation.
In case of bar magnet, it is defined as the product of pole strength and distance between
them

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µm=2lm

where 2l is the distance between the poles

In case of current carrying conductor, it is the product of current (i) and cross sectionarea (A) of the
conductor.

µm=iA

iii. In case of atom, it is the product of current (i) developed by orbital motion of electronand the
area covered by the orbital.
µm=iA

It is a vector quantity. Its direction is from south pole to the north pole.
Its SI unit is Ampere-m2.

Magnetic Flux(Φ):
A number of magnetic lines of force is called “magnetic flux”.
The SI unit of magnetic flux is the Weber (Wb).
Magnetic induction or Magnetic flux density (B): in any material is the number of magnetic field lines
that pass through the substance per unit area perpendicularly.
Magnetic flux density (B) = Φ/A
2
The unit of B is Weber/m or Tesla
Magnetizing field (force) or Magnetic field intensity(H): at any point in the magnetic field is the
force experienced by a unit north pole placed at that point.
It is vector quantity. Its SI unit is Ampere⁄m.
The magnetic induction B due to a magnetic field of Intensity H applied in vacuum is related by
B=µ0H
where µ0 is permeability of free space (vacuum). The permeability of free space has a value of 4π×10 -7
H/meter
Instead in vacuum if the field applied in a medium, the magnetic induction in the solid is given by
B=µH
where µ is absolute permeability of solid material

Permeability (µ): is defined as the ability of a material to allow the magnetic lines of force
to pass through it or degree to which a material can be magnetized.
µ=B/H, Units: Henry/meter
Relative magnetic permeability(𝝁 ): The ratio of its absolute magnetic permeability(µ) of the material
to the magnetic permeability of free space (µ0).

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
r 
0
It is purely a number; it has no units.

Magnetization: Magnetization is the process of converting a non-magnetic material to a magnetic

material or The ability of a material to get magnetized when placed in an externalmagnetic field is
called magnetization.
Intensity of magnetization (M) is defined as the vector sum of magnetic moments of the atoms (or

molecules) contained in unit volume of the material. It is given by M   m

V
-1
It is a vector and its unit is Am
The intensity of magnetization for a material is proportional to the magnetizing field
𝑴α 𝑯 𝒐𝒓 𝑴 = 𝝌𝑯.
Where 𝝌 is the magnetic susceptibility
The magnetic susceptibility (𝝌) of a material is the measure of ease with which the material can be
magnetized and is defined as the ratio of intensity of magnetization
M
induced in the material to the magnetizing field. Thus,  
H
Relation between magnetic susceptibility and relative permeability When a magnetic material is
magnetized by placing it in a magnetic field, the resultant field inside the material is the sum of the field
due to the magnetization of the material and the original magnetizing field.
The magnetic flux density is
= 0 (𝐻 + 𝑀)
= 0(𝐻 + 𝐻)
= 0𝐻(1 + ). ……(1)
as 𝑀 = 𝐻
As = …..(2)
Comparing (1) and (2)

𝐻= 0(1 + )

Thus = 0 (1 + )

As = 0 we get 𝝁𝒓 = ( + ) .

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Origin of Magnetism/magnetic moment:

Materials are made up of atoms. These atoms consist of positively charged nucleus, surrounded by
cloud of electrons. In all atoms electrons are revolving around the nucleus in different orbits and also
spin about their own axis. These revolving electrons constitute an electrical current in the orbits.
These revolving electrons produce its own orbital magnetic dipole moment, measured in Bohr
magneton ( ) and there is also a spin magnetic moment associated with it (spin of orbital electrons
and spin of nucleus). In most materials there are no resultant magnetic moments, due to the
electrons being grouped in pairs causing the magnetic moment to be cancelled by its neighbour.
Under external applied magnetic field these dipoles experience torque in the direction of applied
field and the atom acquires certain magnetism.
So, the magnetic moment of an atom is due to
1. Orbital magnetic moment of the electrons,
[Link] magnetic moment of the electrons,
3. Spin magnetic moment of the nucleus.

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Dia, Para and Ferromagnetic substances

Property Diamagnetis Paramagnetism Ferromagnetism

m
Susceptibility −1 ≤ < 0 (negative 0< < ( 𝑢 ) 1 (positive and a
( ) and small) (positive and small) large number)

Relative 0≪ <1( 1< <1+ (slightly greater 1 (much greater

Permeability( ) 1) than 1) than 1)

Retentivity Zero Zero or Very low Very high

Variation of M Linear and small Linear and smallPositive Nonlinear variation

with H negative slope slope
All spins or magnetic All spins or magnetic
No spin alignment is moments are randomly moments are orderly
present. oriented. oriented.
spin alignment

In the presence The magnetic lines of The magnetic lines of force The magnetic lines of
of magneticfield force are pulled out are attracted towards the force are highly attracted
from the material centre of the material and towards the centre of the
.Hence, magnetic hence the Bin material is material and hence the Bin
flux density is greater than the B out. material is verygreater
greater, outside the than the B out
materialthan inside

Material placed Weakly magnetized Weakly magnetized in the Strongly magnetized in

in a uniform opposite to the direction of applied magnetic the direction of applied
magnetic field direction of applied field magnetic field
magnetic field.
Effect of Independent of 1 1
  (T  Tc )
temperature on temperature T (Curie’s law) T  Tc
χ Curie Weiss Law

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Magnetostriction
Magnetostriction is a property of ferromagnetic materials which causes them to expand or contract in
response to a magnetic field. This effect allows magnetostrictive materials to convert electromagnetic
energy into mechanical energy. As a magnetic field is applied to the material, its molecular dipoles and
magnetic field boundaries rotate to align with the field.

As the applied magnetic field increases in intensity, the magnetostrictive strain on the material increases.
Ferromagnetic materials that are isotropic and have few impurities are most effective in magnetostriction
because these properties allow their molecular dipoles to rotate easily. Magnetostriction was first
measured by James Prescott Joule (1818-1889) who was able to magnetize an iron sample and measure
its the change in length. The opposite effect, in which an applied stress caused the material to create a
magnetic field, was discovered by E. Villari (1836-1904). Gustav Wiedemann then discovered that a
ferromagnetic rod would oscillate torsionally when exposed to a longitudinal and circular magnetic field.

Cause of Magnetostriction

The interior of a ferromagnetic material is divided into magnetic “domains.”

Fig: Division into domains within a ferromagnetic material (a) One domain results in the largest internal energy (b) Division
into two domains decreases the internal energy (c) Division into four domains produces the smallest internal energy out of
these three models.

Within a domain, the molecules are aligned so that their dipoles point in the same direction. This causes
a north and south pole or oppositely-charged portions on opposite sides of the domain. A material can
have any number of domains as long as the number of domains minimizes the internal energy of the
structure. The boundaries separating these regions (in bulk materials) are called Bloch walls. Bloch walls
are made up of a thin layer of molecules in which their molecular dipoles are gradually rotated to align
with their adjacent domains.

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The orientation of a Bloch wall depends on the directions of the applied magnetic field, and the magnetic
anisotropy of the crystal structure. When a magnetic field is applied to a ferromagnetic material, the
magnetic field applies a force on the material‟s molecular dipoles which pushes them to align with the
field. As the dipoles rotate, a strain is produced in the material, causing it to elongate.

Magneto resistance Hysteresis

Magnetic Domains:
Magnetic Domains consists of spontaneously magnetized small regions where all the magnetic
moments are aligned in same direction. This small region is called as domains.
Each domain is at all times spontaneously magnetized to saturation and has a definite magnetic
moment. In the absence of the magnetic field, the magnetic moment vectors of the separate domain
are oriented in all probable directions so that the net magnetic moment of the entire body equals to
zero. When the magnetic fields are applied, the magnetization of the material takes place through two
processes.

By motion of domain walls: The movement of domain walls –in weak magnetic fields Magnetic
moment increases & boundary of domains are displaced, volume of domains changes

By rotation of domains: If applied field is strong, the domains can rotate into the field direction.

In soft magnetic materials the domain walls are thin and in hard magnetic materials the domain walls
are thick.

B-H Curve (or) Hysteresis:

The lagging of Magnetization behind the applied magnetic field is called the Hysteresis.
If we start with no Magnetized specimen (B=0) with the increasing values of magnetizing field H the
magnetic induction of the specimen increases from zero to higher values and attains its maximum value
at a point (a), at this point the magnetic induction Br referred as Saturation Magnetic induction. When
we increase Magnetic Field H there is no further increment in Magnetic moment. When we decrease

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Magnetic Field H to Zero, the Magnetic Induction B attains point (b). This point is referred as Residual
Magnetic Induction Br. Further if we increase the Magnetic field from zero to negative values, the
magnetic induction of material becomes zero at a point (c), at that point the Magnetic field -Hc is
referred as Coercivity of the specimen. If we increase Magnetic Field H in reverse direction
Magnetization of material reaches its peak value at a points (f).

Figure: The Hysteresis loop

On reversing the polarities of Magnetic field and increasing its strength the Magnetization slowly
decreases first to residual value then to zero and finally increases to saturation state and touches the
original saturation curve. The area of loop indicates the amount of energy wasted in one cycle of
operation is called Hysteresis Curve.
The retentivity of a material is a measure of the magnetic flux density remaining in the material when
the magnetizing field is removed
Coercivity is a measure of the magnetic field strength required to destroy the residual magnetism in
the material.

Soft and Hard magnetic materials – Applications

Ferromagnetic materials are classified into two types based on the characteristic parameters such
as hysteresis and magnetization.
They are 1. Hard magnetic materials
2. Soft magnetic materials
Hard Magnetic Materials:
1. These materials can’t be easily magnetized and demagnetized
2. The nature of the hysteresis loop is very large
3. Hard magnetic materials have large hysteresis loss due to large
hysteresis loop area
4. The coercivity and retentivity are large

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5. These materials have small values of permeability and susceptibility

6. Impurities and defects will be more
7. These are used for making permanent magnets.
8. Examples: AlNiCo, Chromium Steel, tungsten steel, Carbon steel.
9. Applications: Magnetic detectors, Permanent magnets, microphones, etc.

Soft Magnetic Materials:

1. These materials can be easily magnetized and demagnetized.
2. The nature of the hysteresis loop is very steep
3. The area under the curve is small.
4. The coercivity and retentivity are small
5. These materials have large values of permeability and susceptibility.
6. Soft Magnetic materials have low hysteresis loss due to small hysteresis loop area.
7. Impurities and defects will be less i.e., free from irregularities.
8. These are used for making electromagnets
9. Examples: Iron silicon alloy, Ferrous nickel alloy, Ferrites, Garnets.
Applications:
 Switching devices,
 electromagnets,
 temporary magnets etc

Bubble memory devices

Bubble memory is also known as Magnetic Bubble Memory. The inventor Andrew Bobeck invented
bubble memory in the 1970s at Bell Labs. Bubble memory comes under the category of non-volatile
computer memory. The representation of data is in the form of magnetic bubbles (tiny circular areas) as
it uses a thin film of magnetic material. Each bubble stores 1 bit of data. As it is non-volatile, data is
retained in magnetic bubbles when power is turned off.

The arrangement of magnetic material is made in such a way that a series of parallel tracks is formed for
moving the bubbles whenever the external magnetic field is applied. It was only a few square inches in
size, which included a thin film magnetic recording layer in which bubbles (bits) were
electromagnetically created in circular strings.

73 | Applied Physics Lecture Notes

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The rotation of bubbles corresponds to the equivalent of a read/write head for their reading or writing.
The bubbles are read by bringing them to the material‟s edge, where they may be read by a normal
magnetic pickup, and then rewritten on the far side to keep the memory cycling.

Applications of magnetic materials

 Magnetic materials are used in meters, motors, electric generators, loud speakers, transformer
cores, etc.
 Large electromagnets are used to pick up heavy loads.
 Large electromagnets are used to levitate modern trains. The so-called maglev trains are faster
and provide a much smoother ride than the ordinary track system, due to the absence of friction
between the track and the train.
 Magnetic tapes are used in sound and video recording equipment.
 Magnetic recording materials are used in computer discs.
 Superconducting magnets are used to contain the plasmas used in controlled nuclear fusion
research.

74 | Applied Physics Lecture Notes