Transmission System
ATM & SONET/SDH
Lecture 6
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM) is the cell relay protocol designed by the
ATM Forum and adopted by the ITU-T.
• The combination of ATM and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET) will allow
high-speed interconnection of all the world's networks. In fact, ATM can be
thought of as the “highway” of the information superhighway.
2
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• Design Goals: There are 6 major challenges faced by the designers of ATM:
1) Foremost is the need for a transmission system to optimize the use of high-data-rate
transmission media in particular optical fiber. In addition to offering large bandwidths, newer
transmission media and equipment are dramatically less susceptible to noise degradation.
A technology is needed to take advantage of both factors and thereby maximize data rates.
2) The system must interface with existing systems and provide wide-area interconnectivity
between them without lowering their effectiveness or requiring their replacement.
3) The design must be implemented inexpensively so that cost would not be a barrier to
adoption. If ATM is to become the backbone of international communications, as intended,
it must be available at low cost to every user who wants it.
4) The new system must be able to work with and support the existing telecommunications
hierarchies (local loops, local providers, long-distance carriers and so on).
5) The new system must be connection-oriented to ensure accurate and predictable
delivery.
6) Last but not the least, one objective is to move as many of the functions to hardware as
possible(for speed) and eliminate as many software functions as possible (again for
speed).
3
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• Problems: Before we discuss the solutions to these design requirements, it is
useful to examine some of the problems associated with existing systems.
Frame Networks:
Before ATM, data communications at the data link layer had been based on
frame switching and frame networks.
Different protocols use frames of varying size and intricacy.
As networks become more complex, the information, that must be carried in
the header, becomes more extensive.
The result is larger and larger headers relative to the size of the data unit.
In response, some protocols have enlarged the size of the data unit to make
header use more efficient (sending more data with the same size header).
Unfortunately, large data fields create waste. If there is not much information
to transmit, much of the field goes unused.
To improve utilization, some protocols provide variable frame sizes to users.
4
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Mixed Network Traffic:
The variety of frame sizes makes traffic unpredictable.
Switches, Multiplexers and routers must incorporate elaborate software systems to manage the
Various sizes of frames.
A great deal of header information must be read, and each bit counted and evaluated to ensure
the integrity of every frame.
Internetworking among the different frame networks is slow and expensive at best, and
impossible at worst.
Providing consistent data rate:
It is difficult when frame sizes are unpredictable and vary dramatically.
To get the most out of broadband technology, traffic must be time-division multiplexed on to
shared paths.
Imagine the results of multiplexing frames from two networks with different requirements (and
frame designs) on to one link (see Figure 1). What happens when line 1 uses large frames (usually
data frames) while line 2 uses very small frames (the norm for audio and video information).
Figure 1: Multiplexing using different frame sizes
5
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Figure 1: Multiplexing using different frame sizes
If line 1's gigantic frame X arrives at the multiplexer even a moment earlier
than line 2's frames, the multiplexer puts frame X on to the new path first.
After all, even if line 2's frames have priority, the multiplexer has no way of
knowing to wait for them and so processes the frame that has arrived.
Frame A must therefore wait for the entire X bit stream to move into place
before it can follow.
The sheer size of X creates an unfair delay for frame A.
The same imbalance can affect all the frames from line 2.
6
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Because audio and video frames ordinarily are small,
mixing them with conventional data traffic often creates unacceptable delays of this type
and makes shared frame links unusable for audio and video information.
So, Traffic must travel over different paths, in much the same way that automobile and
train traffic does.
But to fully utilize broad bandwidth links, we need to be able to send all kinds of traffic over
the same links.
• Cell Networks:
Many of the problems associated with frame internetworking are solved by adopting a
concept called cell networking.
A cell is a small data unit of fixed size.
In a cell network, which uses the cell as the basic unit of data exchange, all data are
loaded into identical cells that can be transmitted with complete predictability and
uniformity.
As frames of different sizes and formats reach the cell network from a tributary network,
they are split into multiple small data units of equal length and are loaded into cells.
The cells are then multiplexed with other cells and routed through the cell network.
As because, each cell is the same size and all are small, the problems associated with
multiplexing different-sized frames are avoided.
7
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
A cell network uses the cell as the basic unit of data exchange.
A cell is defined as a small, fixed-size block of information.
Figure 2 shows the multiplexer from Figure 1 with the two lines sending
cells instead of frames.
Frame X has been segmented into three cells: X, Y and Z.
Only the first cell from line 1 gets put on the link before the first cell from
line 2. The cells from the two lines are interleaved so that none suffers a
long delay.
Figure 2: Multiplexing using cells 8
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
A second point in this same scenario is that the high speed of the links coupled
with the small size of the cells means that, despite interleaving, cells from each
line arrive at their respective destinations in an approximation of a continuous
stream (much as a movie appears to your brain to be continuous action when in
fact it is really a series of separate, still photographs).
In this way, a cell network can handle real-time transmissions, such as a
phone call, without the parties being aware of the segmentation or multiplexing
at all.
• Asynchronous TDM:
ATM uses asynchronous time-division multiplexing that is why it is called
Asynchronous Transfer Mode to multiplex cells coming from different channels.
It encodes data into small, fixed-sized packets (ISO-OSI frames) called cells
ATM uses a connection-oriented model in which a virtual circuit must be
established between two endpoints before the actual data exchange begins
the slot is empty if none of the channels has a cell to send.
9
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
Figure 3 shows how cells from three inputs are multiplexed.
At the first tick of the clock: channel 2 has no cell (empty input slot), so the
multiplexer fills the slot with a cell from the third channel.
When all the cells from all the channels are multiplexed, the output slots are
empty.
Figure 3: ATM multiplexing
10
Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
• Architecture:
ATM is a cell-switched network.
The user access devices, called the endpoints, that are connected through a
user-to-network interface (UNI) to the switches inside the network.
The switches are connected through network-to-network interfaces (NNIs).
Figure 4 shows an example of an ATM network.
Figure 4: Architecture of an ATM network
11
ATM Architecture
Virtual Connection:
Connection between two end points is accomplished through transmission
paths(TPs), virtual paths (VPs), and virtual circuits (VCs).
A transmission path(TP) is the physical connection (wire, cable, satellite and so on)
between an endpoint and as with or between two switches. Think of two switches as
two cities. A transmission path is the set of all highways that directly connect the two
cities.
A transmission path is divided into several virtual paths. A virtual path (VP) provides
a connection or a set of connections between two switches. Think of a virtual path
as a highway that connects two cities. Each highway is a virtual path; the set of all
highways is the transmission path.
12
ATM Architecture
Cell networks are based on virtual circuits (VCs). All cells belonging to a single
message follow the same virtual circuit and remain in their original order until they
reach their destination.
Think of a virtual circuit as the lanes of a highway (virtual path). Figure 5 shows the
relationship between a transmission path (a physical connection), virtual paths (a
combination of virtual circuits that are bundled together because parts of their paths
are the same), and virtual circuits that logically connect two points.
Figure 5: TP, VPs, and VCs
13
ATM Architecture
To better understand the concept of VPs and VCs, look at Figure 6. In this figure, eight
end points are communicating using four VCs. However, the first two VCs seem to
share the same virtual path from switch I to switch III, so it is reasonable to bundle
these two VCs together to form one VP. On the other hand, it is clear that the other two
VCs share the same path from switch I to switch IV, so it is also reasonable to
combine them to form one VP.
Figure 6: Example of VPs and VCs
14
ATM Architecture
Identifiers:
In a virtual circuit network, to route data from one endpoint to another, the virtual
connections need to be identified. For this purpose, the designers of ATM created a
hierarchical identifier with two levels: a virtual path identifier (VPI) and a virtual-circuit
identifier (VCl). The VPI defines the specific VP, and the VCl defines a particular VC
inside the VP. The VPI is the same for all virtual connections that are bundled
(logically) into one VP.
Note that a virtual connection is defined by a pair of numbers:
the VPI and the VCI.
Figure 7 shows the VPIs and VCls for a transmission path. The rationale for dividing
an identifier into two parts will become clear when we discuss routing in an ATM
network.
The lengths of the VPIs for UNIs and NNIs are different. In a UNI, the VPI is 8 bits,
where as in an NNI, the VPI is 12 bits. The length of the VCI is the same in both
interfaces (16 bits). We therefore can say that a virtual connection is identified by 24
bits in a UNI and by 28 bits in an NNI (see Figure 8).
15
ATM Architecture
Figure 7: Connection identifiers
Figure 8: Virtual connection identifiers in UNIs and NNIs
The whole idea behind dividing a virtual circuit identifier into two parts is to allow
hierarchical routing. Most of the switches in a typical ATM network are routed using VPIs.
The switches at the boundaries of the network, those that interact directly with the endpoint
devices, use both VPIs and VCIs.
16
ATM Architecture
HEC: header error check CLP: cell loss priority PT: payload type 17
ATM Architecture
Figure 9: A concatenated STS-3c signal
18
ATM Architecture
Note
An STS-3c signal can carry
44 ATM cells as its SPE.
19
SONET
20
SONET
• The high bandwidth of fiber-optic cable is suitable for today's high data rate
technologies (such as video conferencing) and for carrying large numbers of
lower-rate technologies at the same time.
• The importance of optical fibers grows in conjunction with the development of
technologies requiring high data rates or wide bandwidths for transmission.
• With their prominence, came a need for standardization:
The ANSI standard is called the Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).
The ITU-T standard is called the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH).
• These two standards are nearly identical.
21
SONET
• SONET is a synchronous network. A single clock is used to handle the timing of
transmissions and equipment across the entire network.
• Network wide synchronization adds a level of predictability to the system.
• This predictability, coupled with a powerful frame design, enables individual
channels to be multiplexed, thereby improving speed and reducing cost.
• SONET contains recommendations for the standardization of fiber optic
transmission system (FOTS) equipment sold by different manufacturers.
• The SONET physical specifications and frame design include mechanisms that
allow it to carry signals from incompatible tributary systems (such as DS-1 to
DS-3). It is this flexibility that gives SONET a reputation for universal
connectivity.
22
SONET Architecture: Signals
The architecture of a SONET system includes 3 basic parts:
signals,
devices and
connections.
• Signals:
SONET defines a “hierarchy of electrical signaling levels” called “Synchronous
Transport Signals (STSs)”.
Each STS level (STS-1 to STS-192) supports a certain data rate, specified in mega
bits per second.
The corresponding optical signals are called optical carriers (OCs).
the Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) specifies a similar system called a
synchronous transport module (STM). STM is intended to be compatible with existing
European hierarchies.
23
SONET Architecture: Signals
Table 1: SONET/SDH Data Rates
A glance through Table 1 reveals following points:
The STS-3 rate is exactly three times the STS-1 rate; and the STS-9 rate is exactly
one-half the STS-18 rate. These relationships mean that 18 STS-1 channels can be
multiplexed into one STS-18, six STS-3 channels can be multiplexed into one STS-18,
and so on.
24
SONET Architecture: SONET Device
Fig 2: A simple network using SONET equipment
25
SONET Architecture: SONET Device
• STS Multiplexer/De-multiplexer:
An STS multiplexer/de-multiplexer either multiplexes signals from multiple sources into
an STS or de-multiplexes an STS into different destination signals.
• Regenerator:
An STS regenerator is a repeater that takes a received optical signal and regenerates it.
Regenerators in this system, however, add a function to those of physical layer repeaters.
A SONET regenerator replaces some of the existing overhead information (header
information) with new information. These devices function at the data link layer.
• Add/drop multiplexer:
An add/drop multiplexer can add signals coming from different sources into a given path or
remove a desired signal from a path and redirect it without de-multiplexing the entire
signal.
• Terminals:
A terminal is a device that uses the services of a SONET network.
For example, in the Internet, a terminal can be a router that needs to send packets to another
router at the other side of a SONET network.
26
SONET Architecture: Connections
The devices defined in the previous section are connected using sections, lines,
and paths.
• Sections:
A section is the optical link connecting two neighbor devices: multiplexer
to multiplexer, multiplexer to regenerator, or regenerator to regenerator.
• Lines:
A line is the portion of the network between two multiplexers: STS
multiplexer to add/drop multiplexer, two add/drop multiplexers, or two STS
multiplexers.
• Paths:
A path is the end-to-end portion of the network between two STS
multiplexers. In a simple SONET of two STS multiplexers linked directly to
each other, the section, line, and path are the same.
27
14.3.2 SONET Layers
The SONET standard includes four functional
layers: the photonic, the section, the line, and the
path layer. They correspond to both the physical and
the data-link layers (see Figure 14.15). The headers
added to the frame at the various layers are discussed
later in this chapter.
14.28
Figure 14.14: A simple network using SONET equipment
14.29
Figure 14.15: SONET layers compared with OSI or the Internet layers
14.30
Figure 14.16: Device-Layer relationship in SONET
14.31
Figure 14.17: An STS-1 and an STS-n frame
14.32
Figure 14.18: STS-1 frames in transition
For each byte, the bits are transmitted from
the most significant to the least significant (left
to right).
14.33
Example 14.1
Find the data rate of an STS-1 signal.
Solution
STS-1, like other STS signals, sends 8000 frames per
second. Each STS-1 frame is made of 9 by (1 × 90) bytes.
Each byte is made of 8 bits. The data rate is
14.34
Example 14.2
Find the data rate of an STS-3 signal.
Solution
STS-3, like other STS signals, sends 8000 frames per
second. Each STS-3 frame is made of 9 by (3 × 90) bytes.
Each byte is made of 8 bits. The data rate is
14.35
Example 14.3
What is the duration of an STS-1 frame? STS-3 frame?
STS-n frame?
Solution
In SONET, 8000 frames are sent per second. This means
that the duration of an STS-1, STS-3, or STS-n frame is the
same and equal to 1/8000 s, or 125 µs.
14.36
Synchronous Payload Envelope, SPE
Figure 17.6 STS-1 frame overheads
SPE – synchronous payload envelope
17.37
Figure 17.7 STS-1 frame: section (between regenerators) overhead
A1,A2: are used for framing and synchronization and are called alignment bytes
D1,D2,D3: together form a 192 kbps signaling channel (OAM –operation,
administration, maintenance), called the data communication channel.
E1: The E1 bytes in consecutive frames form a 64 kbps channel. This channel is used
for communication between regenerators, or between terminals and regenerators.
F1: The F1 bytes in consecutive frames form a 64-kbps channel that is reserved for
user needs at the section level.
17.38
Note
Section overhead is recalculated for each
SONET device
(regenerators and multiplexers).
17.39
Figure 17.8 STS-1 frame: line overhead (between multiplexors)
• B2: It is for error checking of the frame over a line (between two multiplexers).
• Bytes HI, H2, and H3 are pointers. The first two bytes are used to show the offset
of the SPE in the frame; the third is used for justification.
• The K1 and K2 bytes in consecutive frames form a I28-kbps channel used for
automatic detection of problems in line-terminating equipment.
17.40
Figure 17.9 STS-1 frame: path overhead
Control info for user data (SPE)
C2: identifies protocol at higher
layer, such as IP or ATM
H4: multiframe indicator (data
spans multiple frames)
17.41
Note
Path overhead is only calculated for end-to-end (at STS
multiplexers).
17.42
Table 17.2 Overhead bytes
17.43
Example 17.4
What is the user data rate of an STS-1 frame (without
considering the overheads)?
Solution
The user data part of an STS-1 frame is made of 9 rows and
86 columns. So we have
14.44
Figure 17.10 Offsetting of SPE related to frame boundary
SONET allows one SPE to span two frames.
This may happen when one SPE that is to be
encapsulated is not aligned time-wise with
the passing synchronized frames
Since SONET frames are continuous,
user data doesn’t always start at
the beginning of a SONET frame.
How do you tell where the user data
begins within a frame?
The use of pointers HI and H2
to define the beginning of the
SPE; the end can be found
Because each SPE has a fixed
Number of bytes.
17.45
Figure 17.11 The use of H1 and H2 pointers to show the start of
an SPE in a frame
To find the beginning of each SPE in a frame, we need two pointers HI and H2
in the line overhead. Note that these pointers are located in the line
overhead because the encapsulation occurs at a multiplexer.
Figure 17.11 shows how these 2 bytes point to the beginning of the SPEs. Note that
we need 2 bytes to define the position of a byte in a frame; a frame has 810 bytes,
which cannot be defined using 1 byte.
17.46
Example 17.5
What are the values of H1 and H2 if an SPE starts at byte
number 650?
Solution
The number 650 can be expressed in four hexadecimal
digits as 0x028A. This means the value of H1 is 0x02 and
the value of H2 is 0x8A.
17.47
17--4 STS MULTIPLEXING
17
In SONET, frames of lower rate can be synchronously
time--division multiplexed into a higher-
time higher-rate frame
frame.. For
example, three STS STS--1 signals (channels) can be
combined into one STS STS--3 signal (channel), four
STS--3s can be multiplexed into one STS
STS STS--12,
12, and so on.
on.
17.48
Figure 17.12 STS multiplexing/demultiplexing
Four STS-3s can be multiplexed into one STS-12, but the STS-3s
must first be demultiplexed back to STS-1s before combining
into an SPS-12. This is because of the byte interleaving.
17.49
17--5 SONET NETWORKS
17
Using SONET equipment, we can create a SONET
network that can be used as a high-
high-speed backbone
carrying loads from other networks.
networks. We can roughly
divide SONET networks into three categories:
categories: linear
linear,,
ring,, and mesh networks
ring networks..
Topics discussed in this section:
Linear Networks
Ring Networks
Mesh Networks
17.50
Figure 17.17 Taxonomy of SONET networks
17.51
Figure 17.18 A point-to-point SONET network
17.52
Figure 17.19 A multipoint SONET network
17.53
Figure 17.21 A unidirectional path switching ring
17.54
Figure 17.22 A bidirectional line switching ring
17.55
Figure 17.23 A combination of rings in a SONET network
17.56
17--6 VIRTUAL TRIBUTARIES
17
SONET is designed to carry broadband payloads. payloads.
Current digital hierarchy data rates, however, are lower
than STS-
STS-1. To make SONET backward
backward--compatible with
the current hierarchy, its frame design includes a system
of virtual tributaries (VTs).
(VTs). A virtual tributary is a
partial payload that can be inserted into an STS
STS--1.
Topics discussed in this section:
Types of VTs
17.57
Figure 17.25 Virtual tributaries
17.58
Figure 17.26 Virtual tributary types
17.59