SCS 312:LECTURE 3: OSI

REFERENCE MODEL
BY Ms Vasdinus Ngemu
vngemu@[Link],0711230883
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Introduction

 Over the past couple of decades many of the networks that

were built used different hardware and software
implementations , as a result they were incompatible

OSI MODEL
 It was difficult for networks using different specifications to
communicate with each other.
 To address the problem of networks being incompatible and
unable to communicate with each other, the International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) researched various
network schemes.

2
CONT:
 The ISO recognised there was a need to create a
NETWORK MODEL that would help vendors create
interoperable network implementations.
 The International Organisation for Standardisation

OSI MODEL
(ISO) is an International standards organisation
responsible for a wide range of standards, including
many that are relevant to networking
 In 1984 in order to aid network interconnection without
necessarily requiring complete redesign, the Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model was
approved as an international standard for
communications architecture.
3
History the OSI Reference Model

 The International Organization for Standardization (ISO)

was established in 1947,
 It is a multinational body dedicated to worldwide agreement

OSI MODEL
on international standards.
 An ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)
model.
 OSI was first introduced in the late 1970s.

4
cont
 An open system is a set of protocols that allows any two
different systems to communicate regardless of their
underlying architectural differences.

OSI MODEL
 The purpose of the OSI model is to show how to
facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the logic of the underlying
hardware and software.
 The OSI model is not a protocol; it is a model for
understanding and designing a network architecture that
is flexible, robust, and interoperable.

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A Layered Network Model

 Layering is the process of breaking up the functions or tasks of

networking into layers to reduce complexity.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the

OSI MODEL
protocol specification.
 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers. This is called peer-to-peer
layer-n conversations.

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Peer-to-Peer Communication

 In order for data to travel from the source to the destination,

each layer of the OSI model at the source must communicate
with its peer layer at the destination.
 This form of communication is referred to as peer-to-peer.

OSI MODEL
7
cont
 During this process, the protocols of each layer exchange
information, called protocol data units (PDUs).
 Each layer of communication on the source computer

OSI MODEL
communicates with a layer-specific PDU, and with its
peer layer on the destination computer.

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Example of layered Communication: Sending a Letter

OSI MODEL
9

Figure23 sending parcel ( Behrouz A. Forouzan 2013)

The OSI Reference Model

 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving

information between computers over a network medium into
SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems .

OSI MODEL
 This separation into smaller more manageable functions is
known as layering.

10
cont
 The layers are:
 physical (layer 1),
 data link (layer 2),

OSI MODEL
 network (layer 3),
 transport (layer 4),
 session (layer 5),
 presentation (layer 6),
 application (layer 7) .
o An understanding of the fundamentals of the OSI model provides a
solid basis for exploring data communications.

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OSI Model

OSI MODEL
12

Figure 24 The OSI Mdell ( Behrouz A. Forouzan 2013)

cont
 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and
physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and 1) are concerned with the
flow of data from end to end through the network.

OSI MODEL
 The upper three layers of the OSI model (application,
presentation and session—Layers 7, 6 and 5) are
orientated more toward services to the applications.
 Data is encapsulated with the necessary protocol
information as it moves down the layers before network
transit.

13
cont
 In order for data packets to travel from a source to a destination
on a network, it is important that all the devices on the network
speak the same language or protocol.
 A data communications protocol is a set of rules or an

OSI MODEL
agreement that determines the format and transmission of data.
 For example; Layer 4 on the source computer communicates
with Layer 4 on the destination computer as shown in the
diagram below and the same happens in all other layers.
 The rules and conventions used for this layer are known as
Layer 4 protocols

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Functions of the OSI Model Layers

Layer 1: Physical Layer

 The physical layer coordinates the functions required to carry a bit

OSI MODEL
stream over a physical medium.
 It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and functional
specifications for activating, maintaining, and deactivating the
physical link between end systems.
 Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes,
physical data rates, maximum transmission distances, physical
connectors, and other similar attributes are defined by physical
layer specifications.
 The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of the 15
transmission medium.
Other functions of the physical layer

 Defines the characteristics of the interface between the

devices and the transmission medium.
 It also defines the type of transmission medium.

OSI MODEL
 The physical layer defines the duration of a bit, which is how
long it lasts i.e. Data rate/transmission rate or the number of
bits sent each second
 Synchronization of bits - The sender and receiver not only
must use the same bit rate but also must be synchronized at
the bit level. In other words, the sender and the receiver
clocks must be synchronized
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cont
 Line configuration - The physical layer is concerned with the
connection of devices to the media. In a point-to-point
configuration, two devices are connected through a dedicated
link. In a multipoint configuration, a link is shared among

OSI MODEL
several devices.
 Determines the Physical topology to be used - The physical
topology defines how devices are connected to make a
network
 Transmission mode - The physical layer also defines the
direction of transmission between two devices: simplex, half-
duplex, or full-duplex. In simplex mode, only one device can
send; the other can only receive 17
Layer 2: The Data Link Layer

 The data link layer provides access to the networking

media and physical transmission across the media
 this enables the data to locate its intended destination on

OSI MODEL
a network.
 It transforms the physical layer, a raw transmission
facility, to a reliable link.
 It makes the physical layer appear error-free to the upper
layer (network layer)

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cont
 The data link layer provides reliable transit of data across
a physical link by using the Media Access Control
(MAC) addresses.

OSI MODEL
 The data link layer uses the MAC address to define a
hardware or data link address in order for multiple
stations to share the same medium and still uniquely
identify each other.
 It is Concerned with network topology, network access,
error notification, ordered delivery of frames, and flow
control.

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Other function of the data link layer

 Framing - The data link layer divides the stream of bits received
from the network layer into manageable data units called frames.
 Physical addressing - If frames are to be distributed to different
systems on the network, the data link layer adds a header to the

OSI MODEL
frame to define the sender and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame
is intended for a system outside the sender's network, the receiver
address is the address of the device that connects the network to the
next one.
 Flow control - If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the
receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced in the
sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control mechanism to
avoid overwhelming the receiver
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cont
 Error control - The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit
damaged or lost frames.
It also uses a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames.

OSI MODEL

 Error control is normally achieved through a trailer added to the end
of the frame
 Access control - When two or more devices are connected to
the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any given
time.

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Layer 3: Network Layer

 The network layer is responsible for the source-to-destination

delivery of a packet, possibly across multiple networks (links).
 Whereas the data link layer oversees the delivery of the packet
between two systems on the same network (links), the network

OSI MODEL
layer ensures that each packet gets from its point of origin to its
final destination.
 If two systems are connected to the same link, there is usually
no need for a network layer.
 If the two systems are attached to different networks (links)
with connecting devices between the networks (links), there is
often a need for the network layer to accomplish source-to-
destination delivery.
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Other functions of the Network layer

 Logical addressing - The physical addressing implemented by the

data link layer handles the addressing problem locally.
 If a packet passes the network boundary, we need another addressing
system to help distinguish the source and destination systems.

OSI MODEL
 The network layer adds a header to the packet coming from the upper
layer that, among other things, includes the logical addresses of the sender
and receiver
 Routing - When independent networks or links are connected to
create internetworks (network of networks) or a large network, the
connecting devices (called routers or switches) route or switch the
packets to their final destination.
 One of the functions of the network layer is to provide this
mechanism.

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Layer 4: Transport Layer

 The transport layer is responsible for process-to-process

delivery of the entire message.
 A process is an application program running on a host.

OSI MODEL
 Whereas the network layer oversees source-to-destination
delivery of individual packets, it does not recognize any
relationship between those packets.
 It treats each one independently, as though each piece
belonged to a separate message, whether or not it does.
 The transport layer, on the other hand, ensures that the whole
message arrives intact and in order, overseeing both error
control and flow control at the source-to-destination level.
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Other responsibilities of the transport layer

 Service-point addressing - Computers often run several programs

at the same time.
 source-to-destination delivery means delivery not only from one
computer to the next but also from a specific process (running program)

OSI MODEL
on one computer to a specific process (running program) on the other.
 The transport layer header must therefore include a type of address called
a service-point address (or port address).
 The network layer gets each packet to the correct computer; the transport
layer gets the entire message to the correct process on that computer.
 Segmentation and reassembly –
 A message is divided into transmittable
 These numbers enable the transport layer to reassemble the message
correctly upon arriving at the destination and to identify and replace
packets that were lost in transmission.
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cont
 Connection control –
 The transport layer can be either connectionless or connection-
oriented.
 A connectionless transport layer treats each segment as an

OSI MODEL
independent packet and delivers it to the transport layer at the
destination machine.
 A connection-oriented transport layer makes a connection with the
transport layer at the destination machine first before delivering the
packets.
 After all the data are transferred, the connection is terminated.
 Flow control - Like the data link layer, the transport layer is
responsible for flow control. However, flow control at this
layer is performed end to end rather than across a single link.
26
cont
 Error control –
 Like the data link layer, the transport layer is responsible for error
control.

OSI MODEL
 Error control at this layer is performed process-to-process rather
than across a single link.
 The sending transport layer makes sure that the entire message
arrives at the receiving transport layer without error (damage, loss,
or duplication).
 Error correction is usually achieved through retransmission.
 Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control
Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
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Layer 5: Session Layer

 The services provided by the first three layers (physical, data

link, and network) are not sufficient for some processes.
 The session layer is the network dialog controller.

OSI MODEL
 It establishes, maintains, and synchronizes the interaction
among communicating systems.

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Specific responsibilities of the session layer

 Dialog control.
 The session layer allows two systems to enter into a dialog.
 It allows the communication between two processes to take place in
either halfduplex (one way at a time) or full-duplex (two ways at a

OSI MODEL
time) mode.

29
cont
 Synchronization –
 The session layer allows a process to add checkpoints, or
synchronization points, to a stream of data.

OSI MODEL
 For example, if a system is sending a file of 2000 pages, it is
advisable to insert checkpoints after every 100 pages to ensure that
each 100-page unit is received and acknowledged independently.
 In this case, if a crash happens during the transmission of page 523,
the only pages that need to be resent after system recovery are pages
501 to 523. Pages previous to 501 need not be resent.

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Layer 6: Presentation Layer

 The presentation layer is concerned with the syntax and

semantics of the information exchanged between two systems.

OSI MODEL
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 Specific responsibilities of the presentation layer

 Translation –
 The processes (running programs) in two systems are usually
exchanging information in the form of character strings, numbers,
and so on.

OSI MODEL
 The information must be changed to bit streams before being
transmitted.
 Because different computers use different encoding systems, the
presentation layer is responsible for interoperability between these
different encoding methods.
 he presentation layer at the sender changes the information from its
sender-dependent format into a common format.
 The presentation layer at the receiving machine changes the common
format into its receiver-dependent format. 32
Cont
 Encryption –
 To carry sensitive information, a system must be able to ensure
privacy.

OSI MODEL
 Encryption means that the sender transforms the original information
to another form and sends the resulting message out over the
network.
 Decryption reverses the original process to transform the message
back to its original form.
 Compression –
 Data compression reduces the number of bits contained in the
information.
 Data compression becomes particularly important in the transmission
of multimedia such as text, audio, and video. 33
Layer 7: Application Layer

 The application layer enables the user, whether human or

software, to access the network.
 The application layer is responsible for providing services to

OSI MODEL
the user.
 It provides user interfaces and support for services such as
electronic mail, remote file access and transfer, shared
database management, and other types of distributed
information services.

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 Specific services provided by the application layer

 Network virtual terminal –

 network virtual terminal is a software version of a physical
terminal, and it allows a user to log on to a remote host.

OSI MODEL
 To do so, the application creates a software emulation of a
terminal at the remote host.
 The user's computer talks to the software terminal which, in
turn, talks to the host, and vice versa.
 The remote host believes it is communicating with one of its
own terminals and allows the user to log on.

35
cont
 File transfer, access, and management –
 application allows a user to access files in a remote host (to make
changes or read data), to retrieve files from a remote computer for

OSI MODEL
use in the local computer, and to manage or control files in a
remote computer locally.
 Mail services - This application provides the basis for e-mail
forwarding and storage.
 Directory services -This application provides distributed
database sources and access for global information about
various objects and services.

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The TCP/IP Protocol Suite

 What is TCP/IP?
 TCP - Transmission Control Protocol
 IP - Internet Protocol
 These protocols which operate on the Internet
 Consists of four layers
 Host to Network/Network access layer: Provides physical
delivery of IP packets via frames or cells
 Internet layer: Contains the information so that data can be
routed through an IP network
 Transport/Host-to-host layer: Services the process layer and
Internet layer to handle reliability and session aspects of the
transmissions
 Application layer: Application support
Reference Models
Host to Network/Network access layer
 Physical interface between data transmission
device (e.g. computer) and transmission medium
or network
 Characteristics of transmission medium
 Signal levels
 Data rates
 Exchange of data between end system and
network
 Destination address provision
 Invoking services like priority
The Internet Layer
 End systems inject datagrams in the networks
 A transmission path is determined for each packet
(routing)
 A “best effort” service
 Datagrams might be lost
 Datagrams might be arrive out of order
 Analogy: Postal system
The Transport Layer
 Concerned with end-to-end data transfer between end
systems (hosts)
 Transmission unit is called segment

 TCP/IP networks such as the Internet provides two types of

services to applications
 “connection-oriented” service – Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)
 “connectionless” service - User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
TCP: Connection-oriented Service
 Handshaking between client & server programs
 Parameters for ensuing exchange
 Maintain connection-state
 Packet switches do not maintain any connection-state;
 hence “connection-oriented”
 Similar to a phone conversation
 TCP is bundled with reliability, congestion control, and
flow control.
UDP: Connectionless Service
 No handshaking
 Send whenever and however you want

 A “best effort” service

 No reliability
 No congestion & flow control services
 Why is it needed?
The Application Layer
 Residence of network applications and their application
control logic
 Examples of protocols include:
 HTTP
 FTP
 Telnet
 SMTP
 DNS
 Protocol layering and data
Each layer takes data from above
 adds header information to create new data unit
 passes new data unit to layer below

source destination
application M message
M application
Ht M transport transport Ht M segment
H nH t M network network H nH t M datagram
H l H nH t M link link H l H nH t M frame
physical physical