Why do organisms reproduce?
● Every organism (human, plant, animal, bacteria) eventually dies.
● If they do not make new organisms → their species will disappear (extinct).
● To make sure their kind continues to exist, they produce offspring.
Definition:
Reproduction is the process by which living organisms produce new individuals of their
own kind
It is not required for individual survival
But it is essential for existence of species on Earth
Why do offspring look similar to their parents?
Because parents pass their characteristics (eye color, height, hair type etc.) to their
children.
These characteristics are stored in a chemical called:
DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
DNA is present in:
Nucleus → Chromosomes → Genes
Component What it stores
Genes Small pieces of DNA controlling one
character
DNA Complete information to make organism
Chromosomes Structures that carry DNA
📝 Example:
Plant produces new seeds → seeds grow into same kind of plant
Dog gives birth to dogs, not cats
How does reproduction make copies?
cell makes a copy of its DNA
Cell divides into two cells
Each new cell gets one DNA copy + its own cell parts
So, new cells/organisms look similar to the parent.
Input → Original cell
Output → Two new similar cells
Do they look EXACTLY same? (Variations)
The copying of DNA is not perfect
Small mistakes/changes occur sometimes
These small changes are called Variations
Variations make every organism slightly different
Examples of variations:
● Humans in a family look similar but not identical
● Leaves of the same plant are not exactly alike
Importance of Variation
Why are variations necessary?
Environment around living beings keeps changing:
Environmental Change Effect
Temperature increases Some organisms may die
Water level changes Organisms may not survive
Natural disasters Many die suddenly
If all organisms are exact copies, then:
one dies → possibly all will die
Species may become extinct
How variation helps?
Some organisms may have a special character that helps them survive.
Example:
A population of bacteria is living in cool water.
Due to global warming water becomes hot.
● Most bacteria → die
● Few bacteria with heat-resistant variation → survive
● They reproduce → new population continues
Therefore:
Variation = Survival + Evolution + Future existence of species
FISSION
Definition:
When a unicellular organism splits into new individuals by division of its cell and nucleus,
the process is called fission.
Happens when conditions are favorable (good food, water, temp).
1 Binary Fission → Parent splits into TWO
1️⃣
One parent → 2 daughter cells
Both daughters are identical (same DNA)
Binary Fission in Amoeba
● Amoeba has no fixed shape
● Nucleus divides → cytoplasm divides → 2 new Amoeba
● Division can occur in ANY PLANE
Binary fission in Amoeba is random because its body is irregular in shape.
Binary Fission in Leishmania
● This organism has a definite shape
● Has a flagellum (whip-like tail)
● Division occurs in a fixed, definite direction
Orientation depends on body design
Amoeba → Any plane
Leishmania → Fixed plane
Multiple Fission → Parent splits into MANY
One parent → many daughters at once
Usually occurs in unfavourable conditions
Example: Plasmodium (causes malaria)
How it works:
1. Plasmodium stores many nuclei inside a cyst-like structure
2. When environment becomes fine → cyst bursts
3. Many new daughter cells are released at once
Multiple fission → multiple babies → protects species in danger
Binary Fission vs Multiple Fission
Feature Binary Fission Multiple Fission
Result 2 individuals Many individuals
Environment Good/Favourable Bad/Unfavourable
Protection layer Not required Cyst formed
Examples Amoeba, Leishmania Plasmodium
Fragmentation
Seen in simple multicellular organisms
Definition:
Body of parent breaks into pieces (fragments) & each fragment grows into a new
complete organism
Example: Spirogyra
● Green algae found in ponds
● Long filament → breaks into fragments
● Each piece → new filament
Best condition: Clean water, sunlight, rich nutrients
Why does fragmentation NOT occur in humans or
animals?
Because we have:
● Highly specialised cells
● Complex tissues and organs
● Organ systems with fixed arrangement
If body breaks → structure cannot rebuild → organism dies ,Fragmentation works
only in organisms with simple body design and similar cells.
Regeneration
Definition
Regeneration is the process in which a fully new organism can grow from a part of the
parent body.
This happens because:
● Some animals have special cells
● These cells can divide and re-form lost or damaged body parts
Seen in organisms with simple body structure
Example organisms:
● Planaria (flatworm)
→ If cut into many pieces, each piece regrows into a new organism
● Hydra
● Starfish (can regrow arms)
Regeneration is NOT a regular mode of reproduction
It occurs mainly when organism is injured or body part is cut
Requires highly organised cells capable of regrowth.
Fragmentation vs Regeneration
Feature Fragmentation Regeneration
Definition Body breaks into pieces → Regrowth of lost body part;
each piece grows into sometimes leads to new
new organism organism
Cause Natural reproduction Usually due to injury
method
Seen In Simple multicellular Planaria, Hydra, Starfish
organisms like Spirogyra
Body complexity Less complex More developed than
fragmentation organisms
Dependence Each fragment must have all Special cells regenerate
types of cells missing parts
Fragmentation = intentionally splits to form new
Regeneration = Accidentally splits but still forms new
7.2.4 Budding
New organism develops as a small outgrowth called a bud on parent’s body.
Example: Hydra
● A bud is formed on the parent organism due to repeated cell division
● Bud grows → Detaches → Becomes independent Hydra
Asexual reproduction
Offspring = clone of parent
Example: Yeast
● Unicellular fungus
● Produces buds which may remain attached → form a chain
Vegetative Propagation
Definition
Formation of new plants without seeds, using vegetative parts of the plant
(roots, stems, leaves)
Natural Vegetative Propagation occurs through:
Plant part Example
Root Sweet potato, Dahlia
Stem (runners, bulbs, tubers) Potato, Onion, Ginger, Mint
Leaf Bryophyllum
Bud Eyes of Potato
Bryophyllum
● Small buds grow on leaf margins
● These buds fall → grow into new plants
Leaves act as reproductive organs
.
🔧 Artificial Vegetative Propagation
(used by farmers & gardeners)
Methods:
Cutting
● A piece of stem with node is planted in soil → grows new roots & shoots
Example: Rose, Sugarcane, Hibiscus
Layering
● A branch is bent down into soil
● Part of it is covered with soil
● Roots develop → new plant separates from parent
● Example: Jasmine, Bougainvillea
Good for plants that cannot produce strong seeds
Grafting
Used to combine good qualities of two plants
Part used Character obtained
Scion (top part) Desirable fruits/flowers
Stock (root system) Strong roots & good survival
📌 Examples:
● Mango
● Rose
● Citrus fruits (lemon, orange)
Scion = Show part (fruit)
Stock = Support part (root)
Advantages & Disadvantages of
Vegetative Propagation
Advantages
Fast method — quicker than growing from seeds
Exact copy of parent → preserves good qualities
Seedless plants can be grown
→ Example: Banana, Sugarcane, Grapes
Many plants can be grown in small space
Disadvantages
No variation → Weak against diseases
If parent has disease → spreads to all offspring
Requires skill and care
Plants may become costly for farmers
Spore Formation
Definition
Spore formation is an asexual reproductive method in which the organism produces tiny,
light, and dust-like structures called spores that can grow into new individuals.
Key Features
● Spores are single-celled, protected, and highly resistant
● Can survive unfavourable conditions
● When conditions become favourable → spores germinate and grow into a new
organism
Example organisms:
● Fungi → Rhizopus (Bread mould)
● Mosses
● Ferns
How does spore formation occur in Rhizopus (Bread Mould)?
1 A fungus grows on moist bread and forms thread-like structures called hyphae
1️⃣
2️⃣Hyphae produce upright stalks called sporangiophores
3️⃣At the top → sporangia (rounded caps) are formed
4️⃣Inside sporangia → hundreds of spores are made
5️⃣When sporangia burst, spores spread through air/wind
6️⃣If spores land in moist conditions → they germinate → new fungus grows
Advantages of Spore Formation
Benefit Why it helps
Survival in harsh environment Spores have tough coat
Spread over long distances Air/wind dispersal
Large number of spores Fast colonization
Limitation
● Requires moist conditions to germinate
Exam Tip: Draw and label the Rhizopus diagram with sporangium → easy 2–3
marks!
Tissue Culture
Definition
Tissue Culture is a technique in which a few cells or tissues from a plant are grown in
special nutrient medium under sterile conditions to produce many new identical plants.
Also called: Micropropagation
Why is it special?
● Only a tiny part of a plant is enough
● Thousands of plants can be produced quickly
● New plants are exact copies (clones)
Steps in Tissue Culture
Step What happens
Selection Choose a plant with desirable
characteristics
Explant removal Take a small part like shoot tip or leaf cell
(called explant)
Sterilization Remove germs
Inoculation Place tissue in a nutrient medium
containing hormones
Callus formation Cells divide rapidly → form a lump of
cells (callus)
Regeneration Callus develops roots + shoots
Transfer Small plants (plantlets) transplanted into
soil
Exam Keywords: Explants, Sterile medium, Callus, Plantlet
Examples of plants grown by Tissue Culture
● Orchids
● Banana
● Strawberry
● Pineapple
● Medicinal plants
Advantages of Tissue Culture
Point Why important
Produces thousands of plants quickly Good for commercial farming
Disease-free plants Only healthy tissue is chosen
Rare/endangered plants can be saved Used in conservation
Space efficient Many plants in small lab
Limitations of Tissue Culture
● Expensive technique
● Requires special laboratory and trained experts
● All plants are genetically identical → low variation → disease risk