10

Roman Civilization
Summary The story of Rome has fascinated professional historians and amateur students of
history for over two thousand years. In this unit we will survey the different phases
of Roman history, take an especially close look at Augustus Caesar, consider Roman
contributions to law, and have a look at everyday life in Rome. The Bible study considers
the kingdom of God, especially as it contrasted with the Roman Empire.

Lessons 46 - The Rise of Rome

47 - Key Person: Augustus Caesar
48 - Key Concept: Roman Law
49 - Everyday Life: The Roman Empire
50 - Bible Study: The Kingdom of God

Roman Aqueduct, Pont-du-Gard, France (First Century AD)

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248 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

Memory Work Learn Romans 5:6-8 by the end of the unit.

Books Used The Bible

In Their Words
Julius Caesar

Project 1) Write 300 to 500 words on one of the following topics:

(choose one) • Why do you think Rome achieved the success it did as a civilization?
What were its key strengths?
• Write a news article that tells about the assassination of Julius Caesar: what
happened, when and where, who was involved, why it happened, and what is
expected to happen as a result of it. Write it for a newspaper or a radio news
broadcast. See Lesson 46.
2) Write a short play that takes place in ancient Rome. Make the actors, dialogue, and
action realistic. Let the point you are trying to make be obvious from what happens
in the play instead of having someone say it as a line.
3) Create a model of a real structure built by Romans. Locate one or more photos of
the structure. Make your model as close to scale as you can and from the material
of your choosing (wood, cardboard, clay, STYROFOAM™, LEGO® bricks, etc.).

Literature William Shakespeare (1564-1616) was born in the English country town of
Stratford-upon-Avon and moved to London to become an actor and playwright. His
plays were being performed by the early 1590s, and his popularity grew immensely
over the next twenty years. Shakespeare retired to Stratford a few years before his death.
Shakespeare is generally regarded as the greatest writer in English literature, and
Julius Caesar is one of his best works. Shakespeare’s plays are categorized as either
comedies, tragedies, or histories. Julius Caesar is a hybrid of history and tragedy, but it
is usually classified as a tragedy. The play is a study of power and political motivation.
Though Caesar himself is a relatively minor character in the play, everything in the
drama revolves around him. Was Caesar a tyrant who would destroy Rome or a savior
who would rescue Rome? Was his assassination a blow for liberty from oppression or
an act of treason against the best interests of the people? Like any major figure, Caesar
had supporters and critics. In the play, Cassius opposes Caesar and is suspicious of
his motives. Brutus wants to do what is good and is at war within himself over what
course to take regarding Caesar. Cassius recruits Brutus to join the assassination plot.
The result of Caesar’s assassination is civil war. Octavian (or Octavius, later known as
Augustus), supported by Mark Antony (Marcus Antonius), emerges as the winner.
Read the play in an annotated edition that has notes explaining vocabulary and
other elements of the dialogue that might be obscure to the modern reader. You might
also consider listening to a complete audio edition or watching a video presentation
while following along with the printed text. Shakespeare relied on Plutarch, other
ancient writers, and more contemporary sources for his information about Caesar and
his times. Shakespeare sometimes plays fast and loose with historical facts, and the
dialogue includes some anachronisms; but concentrate on the beauty of the language
and the insight into human nature that Shakespeare reveals.
 Census Frieze Monument (Second Century BC)
Lesson 46

The Rise of Rome

R
omulus and Remus were abandoned twins around 600 BC. We know relatively little about the
who were rescued and nursed by a she-wolf. Etruscans. They are thought to have come from Asia
A shepherd’s family reared them. As young Minor. The Etruscans used an alphabet based on the
men, the twins decided to build a city at the place Greek alphabet, employed the arch in building, and
along the Tiber River where they were rescued. They practiced gladiatorial combat.
disagreed on the location, however; and Romulus Around 509 BC, the Latins on the seven hills
killed Remus. Romulus founded a city on seven hills reasserted themselves, threw off Etruscan rule, and
in 753 BC and named it Rome in his own honor. became the most powerful people of the area known
That is one myth about how Rome began. If that as Latium. Here begins the distinct history of the
story doesn’t appeal to you, you can find others. The people of Rome. Being done with Etruscan kings,
poet Virgil offers a different legend in the Aeneid, the Romans established a form of government called
which dates from the first century BC, when the a republic, which means “the affairs of the people.”
Empire was reaching the height of its power. Virgil The Roman Republic lasted for almost 500 years.
mentions Romulus and Remus but focuses on
Aeneas, an intrepid soldier in the Trojan War who The Republic
encountered many adventures and tribulations on
his way to founding the city of Rome. Virgil clearly During the early part of the Republic, Roman
borrowed from Homer’s Odyssey to tell this story. life and government were controlled by wealthy
Neither story, of course, is true. Our best landowners called patricians. The ruling body of
indications are that Italy was invaded by tribes government, the Senate, was composed of three
from Central Europe around the 12th century BC, hundred representatives of patrician families who
much as Greece was. Those who settled in central were elected for life. Every year the Senate elected two
Italy became the shepherding and farming Latin consuls to be chief executives and military leaders. The
people and founded Rome as a city-state around consuls had equal power, and each had veto power over
750 BC. The area was then invaded by the Etruscans the actions of the other (veto is Latin for “I forbid”).

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250 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

picks up once again the reins of his farm animal to

continue plowing.
The government of the Republic fought a
series of wars over several centuries, mostly for two
reasons: perceived need, and greed. The growing
Roman population needed new areas in which to
settle. Roman merchants also wanted to expand their
economic activity, which could be accomplished by
trade but also by the conquest of other lands. Roman
armies were usually successful in these wars. They
Cincinnatus Leaves the Plow for the Roman were well-trained and dedicated to their cause. They
Dictatorship, Juan Antonio Ribera (Spanish, 1806) were also well-organized. A Roman legion of about
6,000 men was divided into smaller units that could
be dispatched and moved quickly.
After his term, a consul became a member of the
Military success led to greater wealth for Rome,
Senate. In a time of crisis, the Senate could name
both through the tribute paid by the defeated
a dictator; but he could serve no longer than
armies and by the increased trade brought to the
six months.
city. However, the warfare also had a domestic
In the other main social class were the
impact. The army was all-patrician at first; but with
plebeians. These were farmers, artisans, small
the greater need for fighting men, plebeians were
merchants, traders, and other such working people.
pressed into service. As a result, the plebeians began
The plebeians were citizens, but they could not be
to demand a greater voice in the government they
elected to the Senate or to the consulship. A plebeian
were called upon to defend.
by law could not marry someone from a patrician
The Republic, which was based on the older
family. The Assembly, made up of representatives
patrician-plebeian social system, was forced to
elected by the plebeians, had little practical power.
A third group in Roman society were the slaves. consider changes when society changed. An
These were usually prisoners of war; and although Assembly of Centuries was formed to represent the
some were well-educated and highly talented, they army. This Assembly began to choose the consuls.
had no legal rights. The Assembly of Tribes became the plebeian body.
The service that Cincinnatus rendered in 458 BC It chose ten tribunes each year as the spokesmen
embodied some of the highest ideals of the Roman for the average people. One of the most important
Republic: duty, efficiency, sacrifice, and country developments urged by the Assembly of Tribes was
above all. Imagine a Roman army surrounded by the formulation and publication of a code of laws
enemy forces. Five soldiers escape to carry word back in 451 BC. The Twelve Tables of Law were posted in
to Rome. The Senate decides to appoint a dictator, the Forum (the central marketplace, equivalent to the
who can rule with absolute power for six months. Greek agora). These laws were no great advancement
A delegation goes to the home of Cincinnatus, for plebeians, but at least they could now insist that
a wealthy landowner who is plowing his field. judges apply the law fairly and without partiality
Cincinnatus leaves his plow, hurries to Rome, and toward the patrician class.
calls for every eligible man to enlist for service. The Plebeians continued to work for a greater role in
commander defeats the enemy and returns to Rome government. Tribunes were granted the veto power,
victorious. Then, sixteen days after being appointed, and the Assembly of Tribes gained the right to pass
Cincinnatus hands back the reins of power and laws without Senate approval. In 367 BC a plebeian
Lesson 46 - The Rise of Rome 251

was elected consul. Eventually the plebeians were however, by invading Carthage itself, which forced
allowed to marry patricians. Some were elected to Hannibal to return home to defend his city. There
the Senate. he was defeated and fled to Asia Minor. After sixteen
Another change in Roman society that years of fighting, Carthage surrendered in 201 BC,
threatened the old structure was the rise of a middle paid a heavy tribute, and promised not to start
class, composed mainly of plebeians who had another war without Rome’s consent. With these
married into patrician families and who had become events Rome became the unquestioned major power
wealthy through trade and government contracts. in the western Mediterranean.
These people did not fit the standard definition of In 150 BC Carthage fought a nearby kingdom
patricians or plebeians, but they wanted a role in without getting Rome’s permission. The Roman
government and exercised their influence to get it. government was outraged and embarked upon the
Third Punic War. Roman forces invaded and burned
Carthage. The city’s population was killed or sold
International Expansion
into slavery. Rome took over the region and added
it to its expanding list of overseas colonies. Roman
The Romans subjugated the other tribes on the
armies brutally subjugated Corinth in Greece
Italian peninsula by 264 BC and began to look for
about the same time Carthage was destroyed (146
new lands to conquer. Rome’s chief rival was the
BC). Rome could then boast of control over Spain,
kingdom of Carthage on the north African coast.
Greece, Egypt, Asia Minor, and much of the eastern
Carthage had been founded as a colony by the
Mediterranean.
Phoenicians around the same time that Rome was
This expansion was again a mixed blessing for
founded. The colony became a power in its own right,
Rome. The Romans developed an effective and
primarily because of a strong naval fleet. Trading
flexible system for governing a growing empire.
vessels from Carthage plied the Mediterranean and
Governors appointed by the Senate oversaw the
the Atlantic coast of Europe.
collection of taxes and other aspects of Rome’s
Carthage established colonies on the island of
interests, but local peoples were allowed a significant
Sicily, just off of the Italian coast; and therein lay her degree of control over domestic matters. Roman
downfall. Rome felt threatened as well as stymied coffers were greatly enriched through tribute paid
in its expansionist desires. Over 120 years, Rome by subject nations and by increased trade. However,
fought three costly wars against Carthage. These provincial governors were sometimes corrupt.
are known as the Punic Wars, from the Latin word Grain shipments flowing into Rome, often as
Punicus, which means Phoenicia. The first war lasted tribute, lowered food prices and caused many small
twenty-three years and centered on control of Sicily. farmers to lose their land. A small group of wealthy
Rome defeated Carthage and pushed the conquered landowners built huge estates called latifundia,
nation off of the island.
The second Punic War came as a result of
Carthaginian expansion in Spain, which again Ruins at Carthage (Tunisia)
threatened Rome. In this war the great military
leader of Carthage, Hannibal, executed an invasion
of Italy from the north over the Alps that involved
the use of elephants for carrying equipment and for
striking terror in his opponents’ hearts. All but one
of the elephants died, but Hannibal was still able to
win battle after battle in Italy. Rome won the war,
252 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

worked by slaves. Many farmers, unable to compete their holdings. A group of noblemen murdered
with low prices and slave labor, moved to Rome to Tiberius and about 300 of his followers. A few years
find work. When most of them didn’t, they became later, his younger brother Gaius Gracchus took up
a restless mob that increased economic and political his fallen brother’s cause and proposed new reforms;
pressures in the city. but he met a similar fate. Gaius and some 3,000 of
his followers were killed.
From Republic to Empire In 88 BC a civil war broke out between
two ambitious and powerful generals and their
followers. Sulla was victorious. In 82 BC he was
For about a century before Julius Caesar rose to
declared dictator, whereupon he abolished the six-
power, the Republic of Rome was shaken by bitter
month limit on a dictator’s rule. For the next several
disputes between powerful individuals and political
decades, Rome was ruled by a series of generals.
factions as well as by dramatic social upheavals.
One of them, Gnaeus Pompey, won great military
As wealth increased, many senators became more
victories but was opposed by the Senate. Pompey
concerned about protecting their possessions
found an ally in Julius Caesar, who himself had
than about doing what was best for the Republic.
extended Roman rule in Spain. Pompey and Caesar
Meanwhile, the number of the poor increased, as
approached another general, Crassus, and formed
did their plight; and some politicians took up their
the First Triumvirate to rule Rome. Crassus died in
cause and demanded reforms.
war, while Pompey and Caesar came to distrust each
Tiberius Gracchus was elected consul in 133 BC.
other. Pompey aligned himself with the Senate, and
He was from a wealthy and distinguished family,
Caesar was declared an enemy of the state.
but he championed the cause of the poor. Tiberius
In 49 BC the Senate ordered Caesar, then in
wanted to limit the amount of land one person could
Gaul, to dismiss his army and return to Rome. Caesar
own and to give excess land to the poor. Members
refused to do so. He crossed the Rubicon River,
of the Senate, however, were unwilling to part with
the boundary between Gaul and Italy, heading for
Rome with his army. He defeated the forces loyal to
Pompey, but he then continued to engage in warfare
in various parts of the empire. In 44 BC the Senate
appointed Caesar dictator for life. A brilliant, crafty,
and power-hungry politician, Caesar gave land to
the poor, extended citizenship to people who lived in
provinces outside of Italy, and undertook extensive
public building projects. However, Caesar was
strongly opposed by Senators who feared (or who
were jealous of ) his popularity and who saw him as
a tyrant. On March 15, 44 BC, Caesar was stabbed

Pompey led forces that participated in a war between

opposing Jewish armies in the 60s BC. According to
Josephus, after Pompey’s side captured Jerusalem, he
entered the temple. This illustration of the event is from
a 15th-century manuscript of Josephus by French artist
Jean Fouquet.
Lesson 46 - The Rise of Rome 253

Cleopatra VII Philopator was part of the Ptolemaic

dynasty that ruled Egypt after the death of Alexander
the Great. As the last Pharaoh of Egypt before it became
a Roman province, she was a shrewd politician. She
bore a son to Julius Caesar, and after his death bore
three children to Mark Antony. Helen Gardner (shown
at right) portrayed Cleopatra in a 1912 silent film.

to death as he entered the Senate. Conspirators led

by Gaius Cassius and Marcus Brutus fomented the
assassination plot.
Caesar had adopted his eighteen-year-old
grand-nephew Octavian as son and heir shortly
before he was assassinated. Octavian enlisted the
allegiance of Mark Antony and Marcus Lepidus,
two of Caesar’s military commanders, to form the
Second Triumvirate and reclaim Caesar’s power for The power of the Roman dictator had been
themselves. Antony and Octavian, however, fell growing for some time at the expense of the Senate
into a quarrel. Antony allied himself with Queen and the populace. With Augustus, the transition
Cleopatra of Egypt, and Octavian declared war was complete. The Senate named him imperator,
against them. The forces of Octavian defeated or emperor, and the Roman Empire began. After
Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 BC. Octavian centuries of almost continuous warfare against other
offered to rule with limited powers, but in actuality nations, the period from 27 BC to 180 AD was
he was already dictator. The Senate declared him to relatively peaceful. The Empire enjoyed increasing
be Augustus, “Exalted One” (a divine title), in 27 prosperity under this Pax Romana (Roman Peace).
BC. We will examine the reign of Augustus in the Roman emperors never devised an orderly
next lesson. process of succession, which meant that the
character and abilities of later emperors varied
greatly and the country was victimized by repeated
internal clashes among competing claimants to the
title. The most common approach to succession was
adoption and designation. The emperor adopted a
relative or close associate to be his son and successor.
The choice might be made for a variety of reasons,
not necessarily character and competency. Tiberius,
Claudius, Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius

Caesar was the family name of Julius Caesar. In his

honor, later emperors were given the title of Caesar.
Many centuries later, the titles of the German kaiser
and the Russian czar were also derived from the name.
 Europe ROMAN EMPIRE
254 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization
Oclantic
ean
At

Rome  were able leaders; Caligula and Nero, on the other

hand, were evil and probably insane.
Mediterranean Se Asia When people refer to Rome, they might be
a
referring to one of many different periods and forms
Africa of government: the city of Rome, the Republic,
the Empire in its days of power, the Empire in its
slow decline, pagan Rome, or Christian Rome.
Around 117 AD under Trajan, the Roman Empire Each period and form of government had its
reached its greatest size and strength. The green areas distinctive features, triumphs, and struggles. In
on the map show the territory controlled by Rome in this unit we focus on Roman history through the
Europe, Africa, and Asia. reign of Augustus. In future lessons we will discuss
later developments.

And as the toes of the feet were partly of iron and

partly of pottery, so some of the kingdom will be strong
and part of it will be brittle.
Daniel 2:42

Assignments for Lesson 46

Bible Read Romans 1-3. Commentary available in Student Review.

In Their Words Read the excerpt from The Histories by Polybius (pages 66-67).

Literature Begin reading the play Julius Caesar by William Shakespeare. Plan to finish
it by the end of this unit.

Student Review Optional: Answer the questions for Lesson 46.

 Statue of Augustus (c. 10 BC)
Lesson 47 - Key Person

Augustus Caesar

T
he Roman Republic ended after decades the Balkan peninsula. Octavian hurried to southern
of instability. Politicians did not just Italy, but only as a private citizen. There he learned
criticize each other; they had each other that Caesar had named him as heir in his will.
assassinated. Generals competing for political Octavian took command of a large army near
power each had their own armed force of loyal Brundisium. His family feared for his life, thinking
troops. The rise to power of Julius Caesar and his that those who had killed Caesar would come after
resultant assassination were not exceptional. They him also.
were instead merely the culmination of a long- Octavian, however, waded into the dangerous
developing trend. political waters without hesitation. Being Caesar’s
Julius Caesar was killed in 44 BC. His grand- heir did not mean that Octavian automatically
nephew, adopted son, and chosen heir, Octavian, inherited Caesar’s power, but he could use his
was only eighteen at the time. Seventeen years later, position to his advantage in the competition for
after more bloody conflict, Rome finally had peace power in the Roman government that followed.
and a new emperor: Octavian, now titled Augustus. The conspirators who killed Caesar found that
Before his death in 14 AD, he oversaw the golden the people of Rome loved Caesar and hated what
age of Roman culture and established the foundation they had done. Octavian took the name Caesar to
for peace and progress that lasted many decades. His capitalize on Julius Caesar’s popularity.
talents and accomplishments have led some to call After overcoming all rivals and opposition in
Augustus the greatest person in Roman history. sometimes ruthless fashion, Octavian achieved the
pinnacle of power by winning the Battle of Actium
Rise to Power in 31 BC. Octavian maintained and increased his
power by appearing not to want power. In 27 BC
Octavian was born in 63 BC. After he turned he expressed a desire to retire from public life, but
fifteen, Octavian accompanied his great-uncle the Senate pleaded with him to remain; so naturally
Julius Caesar on military campaigns. It was clear he did. The Senators saw in him a refreshing change
that Caesar was grooming him to be his successor. toward stability and strength of character that had
When Caesar died, Octavian was in Illyricum on been sadly lacking over the previous century.

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Augustus said that he would rule only the major Reforms Under Augustus
provinces while leaving the oversight of Rome and
Italy in the hands of the Senate. He was generous and Augustus reformed the military and had the
respectful toward the Senate, although he controlled armies under his personal command, but he did not
the real power as emperor. Augustus was given many maintain power by resorting to the threat of military
titles and positions, including consul, imperator, force against his fellow citizens. When he came to
pontifex maximus (chief priest, a position given him power, the standing army consisted of about 300,000
in 12 BC), and “Father of His Country” (given in 2 professional volunteers in sixty legions. Augustus cut
BC with the suggestion that Roman history started the size of the army by half, guaranteed regular pay
over with him). However, Augustus most preferred for the troops, and provided pensions for those who
the title of princeps, or first citizen. His rule is were discharged. He encouraged retired soldiers to
sometimes called the Principate for this reason. As live throughout the provinces to help in the defense
first citizen, he led a simple life, in the fashion of of the empire should such help be needed. Every
a Roman patrician without the regal splendor that soldier swore allegiance to Augustus personally (not
Julius Caesar had come to use. to the state or the empire), and the soldiers looked
to him as being personally responsible for their pay.
The new emperor did not see warfare as a way
of life. Instead, he wanted peace as a way of life
throughout the Empire with the army positioned
to defend against invaders and to preserve peace
should internal uprisings occur. Augustus defined
and accepted the extant territorial limits of the
empire and did not seek to expand them. The
area under Roman control stretched 3,000 miles
east to west, 2,000 north to south, and included
an estimated 50 million people. To strengthen the
empire, he extended Roman citizenship to many in
the provinces, cleared pirates from the seas, built a
network of roads, and improved the postal service in
use at the time.
Augustus also reformed government. He placed
the day-to-day work of government in the hands of
professional civil servants, not political appointees.
Augustus appointed able, trustworthy men to be
provincial governors, unlike the corrupt political
hacks that had previously held these positions.

Construction on the Temple of Kalabsha in Nubia

started about 30 BC. This image depicts Augustus in
Egyptian style. The entire temple was relocated for
preservation when the Aswan High Dam was built.
Lesson 47 - Key Person: Augustus Caesar 257

Roman Literature

Three prominent Roman poets lived

during the reign of Augustus. Virgil is best
known as the author of the epic Aeneid.
Horace and Ovid published collections
that included a variety of shorter poems.
This was also the period when the historian
Livy wrote a history of Rome, known not
so much for its historical accuracy as for
its encouragement of traditional Roman
ideals by telling stories (and myths) from
Rome’s past.
Virgil Reading the Aeneid to Augustus, Octavia, and Livia, Jean-Baptiste Wicar (French, 1793)

These men were now paid salaries, which meant empire. Some, especially in the provinces, came to
(1) they were answerable to Augustus and (2) they worship him as divine. Augustus accepted and even
did not have to be wealthy to serve. Augustus also encouraged this practice. Whatever he might have
called for a census of the empire so that taxes might be believed about himself, he knew that such emperor-
levied and collected more fairly. This was the census worship would increase loyalty to the empire in the
that led Joseph and Mary to go to Bethlehem to sometimes troublesome outlying areas.
be registered. Later emperors sometimes were given and
In addition, Augustus undertook a major sometimes demanded worship as divinity (it became
program of construction. He ordered the building of routine for emperors to be voted into divine status
major public facilities to keep people working and to by the Senate upon their death). This emperor-
renew pride in Rome. Augustus said that he found worship became something of an official civil
Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. religion, and as time went on those who refused to
Trade and industry increased during his tenure. take part (such as Christians) were seen as suspect
Augustus also tried to rebuild Roman character. He by governing authorities.
oversaw the passage of laws that encouraged marriage
and morality and that discouraged adultery and
divorce (although Augustus himself was not always Coin from the reign of Augustus (c. 14 AD)
faithful to his wife).

Legacy of Augustus

The title of Augustus (“Exalted One”) suggests

how he was viewed by the political leaders of his
day. He appeared to them to be a gift of the gods,
bringing order and stability to the city and the
258 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

Cicero

Cicero (106-43 BC) is regarded as one of the greatest thinkers, writers, and orators that Rome produced.
He served as a consul of Rome and was a long-time member of the Senate. In the turmoil that followed the
assassination of Julius Caesar, Cicero made a series of speeches in the Senate against Mark Antony and in favor
of the Senate supporting Octavian (who became Augustus later). Although Cicero had nothing to do with
Julius Caesar’s assassination, Antony marked him and his family for death. They saw him as a supporter of the
status quo and thus an enemy of their purposes.
Supporters of Antony killed Cicero, his brother,
and his nephew. Cicero’s son, Marcus, was not
in Italy at the time and thus escaped execution.
Marcus later served as consul after Octavian’s
triumph over his opponents in 30 BC.

Cicero Denounces Catiline

Cesare Maccari (Italian, 1889)

Augustus was like any human, a mixture of good and not continued conspiracy and civil strife.
and bad. He was a pagan, but he did genuinely try Augustus provided this leadership and enabled the
to maintain peace and improve the lives of people Pax Romana, during which time Jesus lived, died,
in the empire. Roman political leaders and the and arose again and the gospel of true peace in Him
population in general wanted rule by able persons began to be proclaimed.

Now in those days a decree went out from Caesar Augustus,

that a census be taken of all the inhabited earth.
Luke 2:1

Assignments for Lesson 47

Bible Read Romans 4-6. Commentary available in Student Review.

Literature Continue reading Julius Caesar.

Student Review Optional: Answer the questions for Lesson 47.

 Roman Forum
Lesson 48 - Key Concept

Roman Law

W
e are indebted to the Romans for much one set of laws to citizens and another to the rest
that is in our world today. The Latin of the empire’s people; but the two standards were
language, for example, was the basis gradually brought into alignment by 212 AD.
for many European languages spoken today and A complete codification of Roman laws, legal
also played an important role in the development of principles, and commentaries took place in the
English. This lesson focuses on Roman law as a key 500s AD with the Corpus Juris Civilis (“Body of
illustration of Roman accomplishments. Civil Law”). Its compilation was overseen by the
The Roman practice of law provided at least Emperor Justinian. The result is often called the
two basic principles of jurisprudence that have Justinian Code. Specific legal procedures that we
greatly influenced the administration of justice in inherited from Rome include the accused being
the Western world: standard legal procedure and the considered innocent until proven guilty, a verdict
principle of natural law. (Jurisprudence, by the way, based on evidence (not social status or wealth), and
is from the Latin jurisprudentes, which means skilled the following of due process in all legal proceedings.
in the law). The Romans believed that the laws of the state
should reflect that which is right and just according
Roman Legal Practices to universal reason—that is, what seems reasonable
to all people. They recognized a standard of right and
The Twelve Tables of Law codified legal practices wrong that is separate from and prior to the state and
in the fifth century BC. From 366 BC a praetor, any particular leader or form of government. This
appointed by the Senate, oversaw the law courts of natural law is what they wanted their code of laws
the Republic. The courts applied the law; but the to reflect. The source for this natural law in their
praetor interpreted the law, and his interpretations thinking was not God but the natural order of the
became the standard for the application of the world. This concept of natural law was an important
law thenceforth. This practice came to be called influence on Enlightenment thinking in the 1600s
common law, which is important in the British and 1700s. This directly influenced the American
and American legal systems. The Romans practiced Declaration of Independence, which proclaimed,
a double standard for many centuries, applying “We hold these truths to be self-evident . . . .”

259
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What Else Was Happening? (200-1 BC)

11 Chinese astronomers had been keeping records of eclipses

and comets for centuries. In the first century BC they
began keeping detailed records of sunspots, darker patches
visible on the surface of the sun. They noted that more
sunspots led to warmer weather.
22 The Badakhshan area (modern Afghanistan) has long
been the world’s major source of high quality lapis lazuli,
a gemstone with a deep blue color (example at right).
Increased activity along the Silk Road helped to distribute
lapis lazuli from Africa to China.
33 After the conquests of Alexander, many Jews in Palestine began to adopt Greek customs. The
Hasmonean family (also known as the Maccabees) established an independent Jewish nation from
164 to 63 BC, when Palestine was taken over by Rome.
44 Juba II was a prince of Numidia in North Africa. After the
Romans made Numidia a province, Juba went to Rome,
learned Latin and Greek, and was adopted by the Caesars.
Augustus arranged his marriage to Cleopatra Selene II, a
daughter of Cleopatra and Mark Antony, and appointed
him king of Mauretania (modern Morocco and western
Algeria). The tomb of Juba and his wife is shown at right.
15 Cuicuilco is one of the oldest known cities in the Valley of Mexico. By the first century BC, it had
grown to prominence in the area. It was destroyed about 50 BC by the eruption of the volcano
Xitle, and the nearby city of Teotihuacan assumed greater importance.

4 3 2 1
5
Lesson 48 - Key Concept: Roman Law 261

Law in the New Testament

The New Testament contains examples of the impact of Roman law as well as the use of natural law. For
instance, in the Empire, subject peoples did not have the right to carry out capital punishment. This is why the
Jewish authorities had to get the approval of the Roman governor Pontius Pilate before Jesus could be crucified.
Additionally, Paul appealed to his rights as a Roman citizen to avoid being beaten (Acts 22:25-29) and when
he wanted his case heard by Caesar (Acts 25:11). The apostle made use of God’s natural law in his argument
that sinful man was without excuse for not following the way of God since His attributes were obvious from the
created world (Romans 1:19-20). In his discussion of the head covering issue in 1 Corinthians 11, Paul asked,
“Does not even nature itself teach you . . . ?” (1 Corinthians 11:14).

As with many accomplishments by the Romans Roman concept of natural law is limited because it
(and by mankind in general), the recognition of makes man’s reason the final arbiter of truth, and
a higher or natural law had both good and bad man’s reason is flawed and influenced by culture
elements. It was good that they recognized a and tradition. Not everything that seemed natural,
foundation of truth that was not the creation of reasonable, and just to the Romans would seem that
one particular ruler or culture. It is unfortunate, way to us. In our own day, the loss of a consensus
about what is right and just has shown up in debates
however, that they did not know God and recognize
over such topics as homosexual marriage. As good
Him as the source of ultimate truth. In addition, the
and helpful as reason and tradition are, they cannot
replace God’s truth as the one true, lasting standard
for all places and times.

Conclusion

Unfortunately, the Roman culture did not

honor God. This fact has two consequences. First,
their accomplishments honor man’s abilities but not
God’s. We should seek to use our talents to serve the
Creator. When we do, God can truly act through
us in a way that is “far more abundantly beyond all
that we ask or think” (Ephesians 3:20). Second, in
the Roman legacy we see the depth to which sinful
humans can stoop when they do not acknowledge
and serve the Creator.

The personification of Justice as a woman holding

scales and a sword dates from Roman time. This 1940
carving by Abolhassan Sadighi is on the courthouse in
Tehran, Iran.
262 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

Tens of thousands of people watched as people

and animals killed other people for entertainment.
Slaves were an integral part of Roman life and
economy and were generally treated as mere property.
Immorality, homosexuality, and divorce became
commonplace. Solutions to political conflicts were
often sought not by ballots and debates but at the
ends of swords and daggers. We must remember
these facts as we appraise the glory that was Rome.
The contributions that Rome made to our world
are a good reminder of why we need to understand
history. We can appreciate what is good, be inspired
by what is remarkable, understand the factors that
have influenced world cultures even until today,
and be warned of the evils into which man so easily
and so often falls. Those people who wore togas,
spoke what is now called a dead language, and knew
nothing of modern inventions are not so distant
from us after all.

The commander came and said to him [Paul], “Tell me,

are you a Roman?” And he said, “Yes.” The commander answered,
“I acquired this citizenship with a large sum of money.”
And Paul said, “But I was actually born a citizen.”
Acts 22:27-28

Assignments for Lesson 48

Bible Read Romans 7-8. Commentary available in Student Review.

In Their Words Read the excerpts from the Twelve Tables of Law (pages 68-69).

Literature Continue reading Julius Caesar.

Student Review Optional: Answer the questions for Lesson 48.

 Wheel Ruts in a Street at Pompeii
Lesson 49 - Everyday Life

The Roman Empire

S
ince the republic and empire of Rome provided for the education of their children by hiring
survived over one thousand years, Roman a tutor or sending their children to a private school.
life and culture went through several phases. Girls as well as boys received a formal education,
Think about how life in America today is quite although girls usually ended theirs at a younger age.
different from how things were a short two hundred Fathers arranged the marriages for their children, and
years ago. Nevertheless, we can identify some basic girls would often be married by the age of fourteen.
characteristics of Roman culture. A boy became a citizen at the age of sixteen with a
ceremony in the Forum. Women had more rights
Life in Imperial Rome than in Greek society. They could own property and
would sometimes go to public events.
During the Pax Romana, the city of Rome had Rome was a teeming, busy city. One dominant
a population of about one million people. As has reality in the city was the presence of hundreds of
always been the case, the lifestyle of the poor was thousands of slaves. Slaves were usually captives of
quite different from that of the rich. Many poor war and often filled responsible positions for their
masters. Another dominant presence were the many
lived in multi-story tenement buildings. Some
poor people. The Roman government eventually
were as tall as seven stories. Besides being crammed
began making welfare payments to those who were
together in small apartments, residents always faced
not able to find work. To entertain the masses, the
the risk of fire because the tenements were built
government sponsored gladiatorial combat in the
of wood. Many wealthy families, by contrast, had
large, beautiful villas with many rooms, a courtyard, Colosseum and races at the Circus Maximus.
and other amenities. Dinner parties lasting several
hours were common. Architecture
In the Roman family, the father had absolute
control. He could decide whether a newborn baby Romans built public buildings on a grand scale.
would be kept or abandoned. Deformed infants and They used bricks, large blocks of stone, and concrete.
unwanted girls were often “exposed” (left to die or Rather than building entire structures with marble,
to be picked up by slave-traders). Wealthier families they often used less expensive building materials and

263
264 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

Much of what we know about life in the Roman Empire is from archaeological work at the city of Pompeii, which
was buried by a volcanic eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 AD. The eruption caught the city unprepared. People,
houses, and businesses were covered and preserved by the ash. The site was forgotten for centuries. It was discovered in
the late 16th century during work on an underground water line. Archaeological work began in the mid-1700s and
continues today. Beautiful paintings have been found in many of the buildings. Shown clockwise from top left are a
still life with a bowl of fruit, a husband and wife holding symbols of literacy, a banquet, and a market.
Lesson 49 - Everyday Life: The Roman Empire 265

Roman Road on the Spanish Island of Minorca

covered the exterior with marble. This made their Aqueducts were raised channels that used gravity
buildings beautiful as well as durable. to carry water. Some also had pathways for
The building abilities of Romans are seen in pedestrians and chariots. Some aqueducts are
many ways. They crisscrossed the empire with roads still standing and a few are still in use. One such
primarily to enable more rapid movement of armies structure in southern France (see photo on page
and officials, but trade and travel benefited also. The 247) stands 160 feet high, runs a length of 900
Romans built over 50,000 miles of roads, some of feet, and is made of stone block with no mortar.
which are still in use today. A typical road was fifteen It is estimated that Roman aqueducts carried 200
feet wide and five feet deep. The base of gravel was million gallons of water per day.
topped with large, smooth stones. Roman civil The Pantheon temple in Rome stands as a
engineers learned how to cut through mountains to testament to Roman architecture and Roman
build their roads. efficiency. After all, why not build one temple to
A key element of Roman construction was the honor all the gods? The original Pantheon was built
arch, which they learned from previous civilizations. during the time of Augustus, but after fire destroyed
They found that an arch of stones could hold greater it, construction on another began around 120 AD.
weight than a single lintel across an opening. The Sixteen granite columns support the porch, and
Romans employed a series of arches to make barrel the doors weigh fifteen tons; but the main feature
vaults and tunnels, and they used intersecting barrel is its massive concrete dome. It reaches a height of
vaults to allow more light and to enable larger areas 142 feet, which is the same as its diameter. A thirty-
to be enclosed. foot hole in the middle allows light to enter. The
A series of arches built side to side made possible dome was built using a wooden mold to hold the
the construction of long structures such as walls concrete, and the walls of the building are twenty
and aqueducts. To move water from mountains feet thick to support the huge dome. The building
or springs, the Romans built a system of pipes was eventually used as a place of Christian worship
and ditches and—to bridge valleys—aqueducts. many centuries after it was built. It has been the
266 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

The Roman propensity to build is evidenced by the remnants of their structures that stand on three continents.
Concrete—gravel and sand mixed with mortar—was not used for several centuries after Rome fell because the secret
of its composition was lost. Its rediscovery enabled a revitalization of building in Europe.

Roman construction took several forms. Public bathhouses, some quite elaborate, were constructed across the Empire
as places for men to meet and relax. An example from Beirut, Lebanon, is shown below at left. Hadrian’s Wall in
northern England (below at right) was built in the second century AD to keep the troublesome Scots out of Roman-
controlled territory. In Rome emperors built monuments and arches, often with sculptures and reliefs, in their own
honor. The Arch of Titus is shown at the bottom of the page.
Lesson 49 - Everyday Life: The Roman Empire 267

inspiration for other famous domes, such as St. such virtues as victory, hope, health, and success. The
Paul’s Cathedral in London and the U.S. Capitol main purpose of religious activity was to appeal for
Building in Washington, D.C. blessings. Rome did have temples and priests (who
Many cities throughout the empire had a were government functionaries), but the center of
structure for public games. The Colosseum in Rome Roman spiritual life was the home. The father led a
was begun in 69 AD and finished eleven years later. daily worship exercise that kept spiritual realities (as
It rose almost fifty feet high and covered about six they saw them) ever-present in the people’s minds.
acres. The top supported beams that held a covering The Romans tended to adopt the gods of other
which protected spectators from the sun. The peoples if they thought those gods would be helpful.
Colosseum floor (280 feet by 175 feet) was made Many Greek gods, for instance, came to be seen as
of heavy wooden planks, usually covered with dirt the same as the gods the Romans worshiped. Rome’s
or sand. chief god, Jupiter, for instance, was identified with
Beneath the Colosseum floor was a network the Greeks’ Zeus. Venus was parallel to the Greeks’
of corridors and rooms where animals and people Aphrodite, Mars to Ares, and so forth. However,
waited to perform—or to go to their deaths. The Romans did not see the gods as glorified, out-of-
floor could be removed and the entire area flooded control humans the way the Greeks did. This would
to stage a mock sea battle. The seating capacity of the have gone against the Romans’ guiding principles
Colosseum has been estimated at 50,000 to 60,000. of duty and order. We have mentioned earlier the
The structure has been damaged by earthquakes; adoption of certain Greek philosophies and the
and much of the original material was used to build practice of emperor worship that were part of the
other structures, including part of St. Peter’s Basilica religious landscape of Rome.
in Rome. The multiplicity of divine beings, which
included the often very ungodly emperors, suggests
Religion the shallowness of Roman belief. Thinking that
human beings might be gods suggests a low view of
Most Romans believed in a spirit world that the spiritual realm rather than a high view of people.
influenced this world. This spirit world included Roman religion was an attempt at finding ultimate
gods but also lesser spirits and even the deification of truth, but it failed to do so.

Marcus Aurelius

The Greek philosophies of Epicureanism and Stoicism became popular

among many upper class Romans. Stoicism had an appeal because of the
time-honored Roman values of duty, discipline, and civic obligation. For
those looking for something to believe in, Stoicism became something of a
religious faith. Perhaps the most famous Roman Stoic was Marcus Aurelius,
a general who became emperor in the second half of the second century AD.
His book Meditations is a statement of his Stoic philosophy. Unfortunately,
as emperor Aurelius approved a persecution of Christians in response to a
plague which many believed the Christians had caused by their refusal to
worship the Roman gods.
268 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

Roman Virtues? became more interested in pleasing themselves than

in doing what was best for the country. Many virtues
Roman culture honored what it called virtue. were based on the strength of the family and the
The Latin word virtus originally meant manliness country. When these failed, so did the virtues.
or bravery in battle but came to be applied more The Romans had a belief system that was not
broadly to any traits which were considered good. revealed to them by God. Instead, they made it
Rome exalted duty, courage, and sacrifice, but above up themselves. The result was that some virtues
all it honored Rome itself (meaning the empire) as were honored and others were not. The Christian
worthy of all devotion. emphasis on personal morality was a striking
However, many Romans were far from what contrast to the Roman worldview. Christian
we would call virtuous. Immorality, adultery, and evangelists found quite a challenge presenting to the
homosexuality were common and accepted. Divorce Romans the gospel of a crucified and resurrected
was rampant. Events at the Colosseum displayed Jew, who wanted them to abandon belief in all other
a penchant for cruelty. As time went on, people gods and live a life of purity and self-sacrifice.

Finally, brethren, whatever is true, whatever is honorable, whatever is right,

whatever is pure, whatever is lovely, whatever is of good repute, if there is
any excellence and if anything worthy of praise, dwell on these things.
Philippians 4:8

Assignments for Lesson 49

Bible Read Romans 9-12. Commentary available in Student Review.

In Their Words Read the excerpt from The Training of Children (page 70).

Literature Continue reading Julius Caesar.

Student Review Optional: Answer the questions for Lesson 49.

 Detail from The Pearl of Great Price, Domenico Fetti (Italian, c. 1615)
Lesson 50 - Bible Study

The Kingdom of God

A
n observer in the Roman Forum remarked seemed unconquerable, and one that seemed weak
that the “merchandise of the whole world” and fragile. One was the kingdom of Rome, the
could be found in that one spot. A second other was the kingdom of God. In this lesson we
century AD visitor to Rome spoke of the “endless will examine the nature of God’s kingdom and see
flow of goods” that came into the city. Supporting its true and lasting power.
this world-wide trade was the best-trained and best- The kingdom of God is where God is King. It
equipped army the world had ever known. The is not a geographical realm like Great Britain or the
Roman emperor ruled a huge area that extended
Roman Empire; it is a spiritual kingdom. One person
around the Mediterranean Sea and into Europe and
can be in the kingdom of God and the person next
the Middle East. He had a network of governors and
to him not be in it. When Jesus stood before Pilate,
other representatives in all of the major provinces.
the Roman governor thought in geographical and
Rome had been growing and expanding for centuries
political terms when he asked, “Are you the King
and appeared to be invincible.
of the Jews” (John 18:33). Jesus said, “My kingdom
is not of this world” (John 18:36). He admitted to
The Nature of the Kingdom of God
being a King, but His realm was not any kingdom
that Pilate could understand. Jesus’ kingdom does
As this greatest of all empires held sway over
not operate the way that worldly kingdoms do.
tens of millions of people, another kind of kingdom
The kingdom of heaven is like a mustard seed.
emerged from an out-of-the-way place on the
eastern Mediterranean coast. It was a kingdom A mustard seed is the smallest of all seeds, yet the
based on a different kind of power. This kingdom bush it produces is far out of proportion to the size
had a different kind of beginning and existed for a of its beginning (Matthew 13:31-32). In the same
different purpose. way, the kingdom of God started out small, but its
The story of the New Testament is in great reach and impact have been dramatic and global.
measure the story of these two kingdoms: one large, The kingdom of heaven is like leaven in a lump of
and one like a mustard seed; one based on military dough (Matthew 13:33). Its influence might not be
might, and one based on self-giving love; one that obvious and direct, but it is real nonetheless.

269
270 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

The kingdom of God does not arrive with an terms, not ours. We are not in charge; we must
army and royal regalia. It cannot be located on accept God’s rule with a trusting and willing heart
a map. The kingdom of God is within you (Luke the way a child trusts his parents. Our citizenship
17:21). If you want to find the kingdom of God, in the kingdom of God is not something we earn.
you have to look in the hearts and lives of people. It is accomplished for us by the One who transfers
You cannot purchase or earn your way into us from the kingdom of darkness to the kingdom
this kingdom. Instead, you must accept it as a little of the Son (Colossians 1:13). A person can be born
child, or you will not enter it at all (Luke 18:16-17). into an earthly kingdom, but citizenship in God’s
Membership in the kingdom of God is on God’s kingdom requires being born again (John 3:3-5).

The Lord’s Prayer

In the Model or Lord’s Prayer, Jesus stated “Your kingdom come. Your will be done, on earth as it is in heaven”
(Matthew 6:10). These two phrases should be understood as saying the same thing. The prayer is for God’s
kingdom to come; in other words, for God’s will to be done on earth the way that it is done in heaven. God’s
kingdom has come into this world, but people still need to let God’s kingship come into their hearts. We show
that God is our King when we do God’s will.

This set of illustrations is from the 1741 book Synopsis Universae Philologiae by Gottfried Hensel. It shows his
understanding of the distribution of languages across Europe, Africa, Asia, and the Americas. The first phrase
from the Lord’s Prayer is printed in many of the languages.
Lesson 50 - Bible Study: The Kingdom of God 271

The kingdom of God is not a political realm, The more important matter to Jesus was giving
but it does have ambassadors (2 Corinthians 5:20). to God what has His image, namely ourselves
Every Christian is to be a personal representative of (Matthew 22:21). Paul, despite being jailed and
his King. When we live as His representative, we are beaten by government officials several times, said
likely to be persecuted the way our King was; but that Christians were to be in subjection to the
when this happens, we will know most assuredly governing authorities (Romans 13:1-7). In general,
that we belong to His kingdom (Matthew 5:10). a Christian should have no conflict about obeying
the government.
Now and Not Yet However, in the bigger picture God’s kingdom
and Rome’s kingdom were locked in mortal conflict
At times the New Testament refers to the because of their absolutely opposite natures. Rome
kingdom of God as a present or immediate reality. was pagan and of the world, while the Way of Jesus
Jesus said, “If I cast out demons by the finger of was from God. When Pilate had the sign posted on
God, then the kingdom of God has come upon Jesus’ cross that said, “This is Jesus, the King of the
you” (Luke 11:20). He told His disciples that some Jews” (Matthew 27:37), Pilate was giving one final,
who were with Him would see the kingdom of God hateful kick to Jesus. The sign was saying, in effect,
come with power (Mark 9:1). Other passages in the “This is what happens to the King of the Jews when
New Testament, however, speak of the kingdom as Rome is in charge.” In the book of Revelation, Rome
a future reality. Paul encouraged some persecuted is the great enemy. It is described as the beast and the
disciples by saying, “Through many tribulations mother of harlots (Revelation 17:1-18).
we must enter the kingdom of God” (Acts 14:22). The contrast between Caesar and Christ was a
James said that Christians are heirs of the kingdom, choice between two lordships. The Roman emperor
suggesting that the kingdom is an inheritance which eventually was considered to be divine and was called
Christians have not yet received (James 2:5). dominus (Latin for lord). The claim of the gospel is
The kingdom of God is a real presence now, but that Jesus is kyrios (Greek for lord). The people of
it will be an even greater and more glorious reality in the first century had to choose: was Caesar lord, or
the future. God is working now. He is King in the was Jesus Lord?
hearts of some people now. However, His reign will
be unquestioned and overwhelmingly glorious with
Dozens of catacombs have been discovered in Rome.
the coming of Christ in the future.
They were neither built by nor used exclusively by
Christians, but many of them are illustrated with
The Kingdom of God and paintings such as this one of a woman praying (c. fourth
The Kingdom of Rome century AD).

The New Testament teaches that, in some ways,

no conflict existed between the kingdom of God and
the kingdom of Rome. When someone asked Jesus
if the Jews should pay taxes to Caesar, Jesus replied
by saying, “Render to Caesar the things that are
Caesar’s” (Matthew 22:21). The coins were Roman
coins and had Caesar’s image on them, so paying
taxes with them was no big deal.
272 Unit 10 - Roman Civilization

In the first century, Rome appeared to be Today, Rome is a memory of history while the
invincible. The city was called “Eternal Rome.” The kingdom of God is an active force that has spread
Empire appeared to have all that it needed to survive around the world. Jesus has been Lord for millions
indefinitely. The church, by contrast, was tiny and more people than ever confessed Caesar as lord. The
struggling. When Christianity came to be seen as a Kingdom of God has indeed come with power—
religion separate from Judaism and not just a Jewish the power of the Spirit—just as Jesus said, while the
sect, it was perceived to be a threat to the security of grandeur that was Rome lies in empty ruins. The
the empire and its members were persecuted. mustard seed won.

The kingdom of the world has become

the kingdom of our Lord and of His Christ;
and He will reign forever and ever.
Revelation 11:15

Assignments for Lesson 50

Bible Read Romans 13-16. Commentary available in Student Review.

Recite or write Romans 5:6-8 from memory.

In Their Words Read the excerpt from The Martyrdom of Ignatius (pages 71-73).

Literature Finish reading Julius Caesar. Literary analysis available in Student Review.

Project Complete your project for the unit.

Student Review Optional: Answer the questions for Lesson 50 and for Julius Caesar; take
the quiz for Unit 10; and take the second history, English, and Bible exams.