Magbook ~ The Universe and the Solar System 7

The diameter of the Moon is only 1/4th of that of the Earth. The Saturn (Shani)
Moon is about 384400 km away from the Earth. The light — Beyond Jupiter is Saturn which appears yellowish in
reflected by the Moon reaches us in just one and a quarter
colour. What make it unique in the Solar System are its
seconds. Neil Armstrong, Edwin Aldrin and Collins set foot on
three beautiful rings. It takes 29 years, 5 months for one
the Moon for the first time on 21st July, 1969. They found that
orbit around the Sun and 10 hours, 40 minutes for one
the Moon’s surface is dusty and barren. There are many craters
spin on its axis. It has 82 satellites. Saturn is the least
of different sizes. It also has a large number of steep and high
mountains. These cast shadows on the Moon’s surface. dense among all the planets. Its density is less than that of
water. It is similar in mass and composition to Jupiter. It is
Mars (Mangal) however, cooler than the Jupiter.
— It is almost half the size of the Earth. The diameter of Uranus (Arun)
Mars is slightly more than half of that of the Earth, but its
mass is only 1/10th of that of the Earth. It takes 687 days
— It was the first planet to be discovered with the help of a
for one orbit around the Sun and 1 day for one spin on its telescope. William Herschel discovered the planet in 1781.
[Link] atmosphere of Mars is much thinner than that of Hydrogen and methane have been detected in the
the Earth. atmosphere of Uranus. Except Venus and Uranus, all other
planets rotate in the same direction in which they revolve.
— It perhaps consists mainly nitrogen and argon. Traces
of oxygen have also been found. It appears slightly
— Like Venus, Uranus also rotates from East to West. The
reddish and therefore, it is also called the red planet. most remarkable feature of Uranus is that it has highly
Mars has two small natural satellites named Phobos tilted rotational axis. As a result, in its orbital motion it
and Deimos. appears to roll on its side. It takes 84 years for one orbit
around the Sun and 17 hours, 14 minutes for one spin on
— In July, 2018, scientist revealed that they had found
its axis. It has 27 satellites.
evidence of a liquid lake beneath the surface of its’s
Southern pole’s ice cap. Neptune (Varun)
— The Mars is visible from the Earth for most part of the — It was discovered by Sir William Herschel on the basis of
year. However, it is best situated for observation, when it the law of gravitation given by Sir Issac Newton which he
is opposite the Sun’s position in the sky with respect to gave almost 180 years before it. It takes 164 years for one
the Earth. On these days, it is closer to the Earth as well. orbit around the Sun and 16 hours 7 minutes for one spin
on its axis. Uranus and Neptune are quite faint and cannot
Jupiter (Brihaspati)
be seen with the naked eye. That is why only 6 planets
— It is the largest planet of the Solar System. It takes 11 were known in ancient times. These two planets have been
years and 11 months for one orbit around the Sun and 9 discovered only after telescopes came into use in
hours, 56 minutes for one spin on its axis. It has 67 astronomy. It has 8 satellites.
satellites. It also has faint rings around it. Its most
distinguishing feature is the great red spot. It is believed Pluto
that it is a complex storm in the atmosphere of the planet
Discovered in 1930 by Clyde Tombaugh, Pluto was long
ranging for a few hundred years.
considered our solar system’s ninth planet. But after the
— Its mass is more than the combined mass of all other discovery of similar fascinating planets deeper in the distant
planets. Because of its large mass, Jupiter exerts a strong Kuiper Belt, Pluto was reclassified as a dwarf planet in 2006.
gravitational pull on other objects which pass by it. A It takes 248 years in revolution and 155 hours in rotation. Pluto
comet passing close to it is likely to experience this pull has five known moons. Charon (the largest), Styx, Nix, Kerberos
and stray from its original path. In 1994, the comet, and Hydra. Pluto and Charon are sometimes considered as a
shoemaker-levy, actually broke up into several pieces binary star system.
when it came too near this planet. The pieces then
New Horizons is a NASA’s spacecraft that was the first to visit
collided with the planet.
dwarf planet Pluto in July 2015. Its flyby images of the dwarf
— Jupiter’s bright appearance in the sky after Venus and planet’s icy surface, as well as observations of Pluto’s moon
occasionally Mars is due to its thick atmosphere that Charon, are revolutionizing our understanding of solar system
reflects most of the sunlight falling on it. It is believed that objects far from the sun.
Jupiter mainly consists of hydrogen and helium in The mission is now enroute to an object deeper in the Kuiper
gaseous form. Its cloud like outer regions consists of Belt, called 2014 MU69. It reached this object on 1st Jan, 2019.
methane in gaseous form while ammonia is present in
crystalline form.
8 Magbook ~ Geography–India and World

Boundary of the Solar System — Many comets are known to appear periodically. One such
comet is Halley’s comet, which appears after nearly every 76
— The orbit of Pluto does not mark the boundary of the
years. It was last seen in [Link] study of comet tails has
Solar System. It extends much beyond it. Its size has
shown the existence of molecules of carbon, nitrogen and
been estimated to be about 105 AU (Astronomical Unit
hydrogen.
which is equal to the mean distance between the Earth
and the Sun i.e. 150 million km). At the edge of the — Since, these molecules can help to form complex molecules
Solar System, there exist billions of very small objects. necessary for the origin of life, some scientists have
suggested that the seeds of life on the Earth were brought by
— These objects were formed very early in the gas cloud
comets from the outer space.
from which the Solar System evolved. Occasionally,
paths of these bodies are disturbed by accidents, such
as a star passing nearby, causing some of them to
Meteors, Meteorites and Meteor
move towards the Sun, which appears as comets. Showers
Comets are of great interest to scientists. This is — Meteors are very small stone-like objects that are revolving
because the material of comet presents a sample of around the Sun. Their existence becomes known only, when
the original material from, which the Solar System was some of them occasionally enter the Earth’s atmosphere. At
formed. that time, it has a very high speed. Due to the friction in the
atmosphere it heats up. It glows and evaporates quickly.
Asteroids — The path of the meteor, therefore, appears as bright streaks
(Starlike heavenly bodies) of light in the sky. The bright steak lasts for a very short-time.
— There are numerous tiny heavenly bodies found These are commonly known as shooting stars, although they
between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter, which revolve are not stars.
around the Sun. These bodies are called asteroids. — Some meteors are large and, so they can reach the Earth
Each asteroid has its own orbit and the orbits of all of before they evaporate completely. The body that reaches the
them are spread over a large distance forming a band. Earth is called a meteorite. They can be examined in the
A few asteroids have elongated orbits going beyond the laboratory. They give us an idea of the composition of the
orbit of Jupiter. material from which the Solar System was [Link] the
— The size of asteroids varies from barely a pebble to a Earth crosses the tail of a comet, swarms of meteors are
few 100 km. The largest asteroid is Ceres, has a seen. These are known as meteor showers. Some meteor
diameter of about 1000 km. Scientists believe that showers occur at regular intervals each year.
asteroids are the pieces of matter that somehow could — New Discovery of Exoplanets Exoplanets are planets located
not get assembled in the form of a planet. The outside the Solar System. NASA’s Spitzer Space Telescope
asteroids are small rocky bodies. has revealed the first known system of seven Earth-size
— While making their rounds the asteroids often collide planets around a single star. Three of these planets are firmly
and break into smaller pieces. These smaller pieces or located in the habitable zone, the area around the parent star
meteorites sometime fall on to the Earth. They crash to where a rocky planet is most likely to have liquid water. This
the ground and create craters. Meteor crater in exoplanet system is called TRAPPIST-1, named for the
Arizona, USA and Lonar lake in the State of Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope
Maharashtra, India are good examples of craters. (TRAPPIST) in Chile.
— On 7th June, 2018 scientist working for Physical Research
Comets Laboratory (PRL) of ISRO, using the PRL Advance
— It revolves around the Sun in highly elliptical orbits. Radial-Velocity Abu Sky Search (PARAS) Spectograph
However, their period of revolution round the Sun is integrated with telescope at the Mount Abu, announced the
usually very long. They become visible from the Earth discovery of host star EPIC 211945201 and expolanet EPIC
only when they come close to the Sun. A comet 211945201 b located at a distance of 600 light years from
appears generally as a bright head with a long tail. The the Earth.
length of the tail grows in size as it approaches the — In September, 2020 scientists discovered a planet of the size
Sun. The tail disappears again, when the comet move of Jupiter named WD 1586b by NASA’s Transiting Exoplanet
away from the Sun. The tail of a comet is always Survey Satellite (TESS).
directed away from the Sun.
 Self Check
Build Your Confidence
1. Which of the following statements are helpful in probing Which of the above statement(s) is/are correct?
the Big Bang theory? (a) Only 2 (b) Only 3
1. Study of Cosmic Microwave Background Radiation (CMBR). (c) 1 and 2 (d) All of these
2. Measurement by Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe 7. Consider the following statements
(WMAP). 1. Pulsars emit regular pulses of electromagnetic waves.
3. Red shift observation. 2. Quasars emit radio radiations.
4. Informations of large Hadron Collider. 3. Origin of stars are traced back to nebulae.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below 4. It is predicted that after 5 billion years the Sun may
(a) 1 and 3 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 3 and 4 (d) All of these expand enough to engulf all its planets and collapse
2. Consider the following statements regarding Solar itself.
System Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
1. All the planets constitute less than 2% of the total matter (a) 3 and 4 (b) 1 and 2
of Solar System. (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these
2. All the Jovian planets have rings. 8. Which of the following is/are the measures of
3. At the edge of the Solar System, there are numerous small astronomical distances?
celestial bodies. 1. Light year 2. Astronomical unit
Which of the above statements are correct? 3. Per second 4. Orbital length
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 Select the correct answer using the codes given below
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these (a) 1 and 2 (b) 1, 2 and 3
3. Consider the following statements (c) Only 2 (d) All of these
1. Our galaxy ‘Milky way’ is a spiral galaxy. 9. Consider the following statements regarding Moon of
2. Our Solar System is located in approximate centre of the Earth
Milky way. 1. In terms of size Moon is similar to planet Mercury.
Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct? 2. In terms of mass, Moon is about 2/3 of the planet Mercury.
(a) Only 1 (b) Only 2 Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2 (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
4. Which of the following statements are correct? (c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. Most of the stars in our universe exist single. 10. Consider the following statements
2. High mass stars has shorter duration of life span. 1. When a star moving away from the observer then the light
3. In future, ‘Sun’ may become a black dwarf not a black hole. coming from it looks red gradually shifting from white.
4. Chandrasekhar limit deals with the finding of black holes. 2. This observation is useful to explain the origin of the
Select the correct answer using the codes given below universe.
(a) 1 and 4 (b) 1, 2 and 3 (c) 2 and 3 (d) All of these Which of the statement(s) given above is/are correct?
5. Consider the following statements regarding Mercury (a) Only 1 (b) Only 2
(c) Both 1 and 2 (d) Neither 1 nor 2
1. One part of the planet is very hot while other is very cold.
2. Its surface is rocky and mountainous. 11. Which of the following statements is/are correct?
3. It can be seen in sky in September and October ‘just after 1. Supernova is a stage when star explode and cost its
sunset’. characteristics.
Which of the above statements are correct? 2. Stars having similar mass like our Sun have similar
(a) 1 and 2 (b) 2 and 3 rotational speed.
(c) 1 and 3 (d) All of these 3. Stars having mass lower than the Sun never explode.
6. Consider the following statements about the Pluto 4. Once a star turns to white dwarf, it is rapidly converted to
black hole.
1. Pluto is largest dwarf planet in our Solar System.
Select the correct answer using the codes given below
2. Pluto is located in Kuiper belt.
(a) Only 1 (b) 1 and 2 (c) 1, 2 and 3 (d) All of these
3. Pluto has no natural satellites.

1. (d) 2. (d) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (a) 7. (d) 8. (b) 9. (a) 10. (a)
11. (a)
Chapter two
The Earth
Of all the planets in our solar system,
Shape and Size of
—
the Earth has the greatest density
approximately 5.52 grams cm 3 , second
the Earth in line is Mercury.
The Earth was formed — The Earth is an oblate spheroid, bulges at — There is an antipodal arrangement of
approximately the equator and is flattened at the poles. land and water on directly opposite
For such shape, the Earth is called as side of the Earth, means land is
4.54 billion years ago
geoid. Geodesy is a branch of science opposite to water and vice-versa on the
and is the only known that deals with measuring the Earth’s size globe.
planet to support life. In and shape. — Even, the North Arctic ocean is
ancient culture, Earth — Due to rotation of Earth, centrifugal force opposite to the Antarctic landmass.
was considered flat. The is generated which is greatest at the Only a few landmass has antipodal to
equator that causes a slight outward landmass, such pairs are like New
paradigm of a spherical bulge there, so the equatorial Zealand-Spain, Bermuda-Perth,
Earth was developed in circumference is larger than polar Jakarta-Bogota, China-Argentina,
Greek astronomy, circumference. Lima-Bankok etc.
beginning with — Gravitational pull is strongest at the — Antipodal points on Earth of a location
Pythagoras (6th century flattened poles and gradually weaken can be calculated by converting North
towards the equator. So, our weight is latitude to South latitude and
BC). Aristotle accepted lowest at the equator and highest at the subtracting longitude value from 180°
the spherical shape of pole. Earth is the third nearest planet to the and reversing East to West or
the Earth on empirical Sun and in size, it is the fifth largest planet vice-versa.
grounds around 330 BC. and largest among the 4 inner planets.
— The equatorial circumference is Facts about Earth
83 miles more than polar circumference ◆
Mass 5.97 × 1024 kg
and equatorial diameter is 26 miles ◆
Equatorial Diameter 12756 km
(~ 42 km) greater than its polar diameter. ◆
Polar Diameter 12714 km
— The spherical shape of the Earth is also ◆
Equatorial Circumference 40030 km
marked by the intervening highlands and ◆
Known Satellites 1, the Moon
oceans on its surface.
◆
Orbit Distance 149598262 km (1 AU)
— The surface area of the Earth is ◆
Orbit Period 365.26 Earth days
approximate 510 million km 2 in which
water is 361 million km 2 (70.8%) and
◆
Surface Temperature -88°C to 58°C
land is about 149 million km 2 . Water is
◆
Average Atmospheric Temperature 14.2°C
more concentrated in Southern ◆
Earth’s Atmosphere Nitrogen (78%), Oxygen
hemisphere and the landmass is more (21%), Argon (0.93%) and Carbon dioxide
concentrated in Northern hemisphere of (0.03%)
the Earth considering equator as the ◆
Earth’s Orbital Speed 29.8 km/sec
boundary line. ◆
Density 5.52 g/cm 3
Magbook ~ The Earth 11

Measurement of Earth’s Age Motions of the Earth

Several methods to determine the age of the Earth are: — As a celestial body, Earth has different varieties of
spatial motions. It may include rotation, revolution, axial
Erosion precession, change in tiltation of axis, changes in the
— Scientific observation shows that erosion takes place at ellipticity of the orbit (spin motion).
about 1 ft in every 5000 years. Knowing this method, we
can estimate the age of rock formations like the Grand Rotation
Canyon. — Rotation is the motion of the Earth along its axis, around
the imaginary line passes through North pole and South
Sedimentation pole. Earth rotates from West to East i.e. anti-clockwise.
— Another method used is to measure the rate at which So, Sun, Moon and other stars rises in the East and set
sediment is deposited. Scientists think it takes between 500 on the West.
and 10000 years to deposit 1 foot of sediment. This method — Rotational motion causes day and night, so, called daily
is not as accurate as the erosion method. motion. Speed of the rotation decreases from equator to
poleward i.e. the speed is about 1670 km/h at equator
Salinity of the Oceans and about 1120 km/h at 45° latitude.
— Some geologists try to measure the age of the Earth by the — Solar Day It is found when the duration of Earth’s
amount of salt in the ocean. revolution around the Sun is calculated in terms of
— First, they need to find out how much salt is in the oceans. days, while taking Sun as stationary. Duration of a solar
Then, they find out how much salt rivers pour into the day is exactly 24 hours. It is the average interval
oceans each year. between two successive midnights. It is also called
— By comparing how much salt there is in the oceans now to synodic day.
how much is carried in by rivers each year, scientists can — Sideral Day The duration between the passage of a
estimate the age of the oceans. particular star over a meridian twice is called sideral
day. Its duration is of about 23 hours and 56 minutes. It
Radioactive Method is smaller than Solar day.
— It is the method to study the uranium in igneous and — Rotation causes deflation of ocean currents and winds
metamorphic rocks. Uranium is a mildly radioactive differently in different hemisphere, popularly known as
substance that breaks down very slowly to form other coriolis force. It also causes alternate rise and fall in
elements and eventually into lead and cannot be influenced ocean waves twice daily. Rotation of Earth creates a
by temperature and pressure. centrifugal force that causes a bulge at the equator and
— Scientists calculate that it takes about 5 billion years for a reduces the gravitational pull there.
half of a piece of uranium to become lead. By looking at
different rocks and comparing the amount of uranium still in Revolution
the rock to the amount of lead that has been formed, they — Revolution is the motion of the Earth on its elliptical
have measured the age of the Earth about 4.5 billion years. orbit around the Sun. Earth revolves at about 18.5 miles
per second or 29.6 km per second. It is responsible for
Carbon-14 Dating experience of seasons on Earth. One complete
— All organic life forms have some amount of carbon-14 in revolution is called a year and can be called
them. When they die, no more carbon-14 is produced, but synodic/solar year/tropical year or sideral year as per
instead the carbon-14 begins to slowly break down. the relative calculation.
Scientists think it takes 5600 years for half of a piece of — The sideral year is defined to be the time for the Sun to
carbon-14 to break down. return to the same position with respect to the stars.
— The fossil remains of creatures that had carbon-14 in them Whereas, the tropical year is the time for the Sun to
are found in sedimentary rock. By comparing the amount of return to the same position relative to the Earth’s axis,
carbon-14 in a rock to the amount of other substances that which is normally calculated from one vernal equinox
have been formed, as a result of the breaking down of the (summer solstice) to another. The solar year is shorter
carbon-14, scientists can date the rock. than the sideral year by about 20 minutes and
— Carbon-14 dating is used to find the age of rocks upto 23 seconds because of the precession.
15000 years old and the radioactive method is used for — Hipparchus was the first man to take exact observations
older rocks. of the length of the year and later Ptolemy also made
the similar one.
12 Magbook ~ Geography–India and World

— The average distance between Earth and Sun is Seasons

approximately 93 million miles or 150 million km, but — The imaginary surface on which Earth orbits around the Sun is
it varies as the orbit of Earth is elliptical not circular. called as the plane of the ecliptic. The Earth’s axis is inclined
— The position at which Earth is closest to the Sun is at 66.5° to the plane of the ecliptic (or 23.5° from the
called perihelion (about 147 million km) likely occur perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic). The Earth maintains
about 3rd January, every year. Similarly, the farthest its orientation with respect to the stars. Thus, the North pole
position of the Earth from the Sun is called points in the same direction to Polaris, the North star, as it
apehelion, likely occur about 4th July every year revolves around the Sun. Consequently, the Northern
(152 million km). hemisphere tilts away from the Sun during one-half of Earth’s
orbit and towards the Sun through the other half.
Axial Precession — If the Earth would not have been tilted on its axis, the days and
— The rotational axis of the Earth is tilted with respect nights would have been of same duration, always. Moreover, if
to the normal to the plane of the ecliptic, presently at the Earth would not have been revolving around the Sun, one
an angle of about 23.5°. Because of the oblate shape of the hemispheres would have long days and short nights,
of the Earth and the tilt, the Sun exerts a gravitational whereas the other one would have short days and long nights.
pull that differs in force at the two poles. The effect is
to attempt to set the Earth up straight i.e. to try to Earth’s Orbit around the Sun

right the axis to be normal to the ecliptic. N

— However, instead of straightening, the Earth’s rotation N
Vernal (Spring) Winter Solstice
Equinox ~21st December
axis precesses, i.e. it exhibits a slow, conical motion ~21st March
around the orbital axis. Infact, the ‘righting force’ has
Summer Solstice
the effect of causing the rotational axis to execute a ~21st June
circular, wobbling motion, like a spinning top. The Autumnal (Fall) Equinox
precession of the equinoxes is responsible for the ~21st September
difference between the Julian and Gregorian Revolution of Earth
calendars.
— The Earth moves not only on its axis, but also in its orbit
around the Sun. Therefore, the Earth changes its position
Changes in Tilt continuously with respect to the Sun. There are four major
— While the inclination of the Earth’s rotational axis is positions of the Earth, while it revolves around the Sun and
presently 23.5°, it has moved a little in the past. Like these positions bring different seasons on the Earth:
the precession of the equinoxes that reflects the (i) Position on 21st June In this position, the Sun shines
circular motion of the rotational axis, the tilt changes perpendicularly over the Tropic of Cancer. This position is called
periodically also from about 24.5° to 21.5° over a the summer solstice. Infact, from 21st March, the Sun starts
period of about 40000 years. So, as the rotational shifting towards the North, gradually. It is the time of summer
axis wobbles, it also tilts back and forth. season in the Northern hemisphere, while in the Southern
— This motion provides no insight into the Earth’s hemisphere, it is winter season. The day in the Northern
internal properties, but it turns out to be very hemisphere is longest on 21st June. From 21st June, the Sun
important as an influence on the Earth’s climatic starts retreating towards the equator and hence, the heat of
changes. summer gradually decreases. On this date Sun does not set
below the horizon at the arctic circle.
Changes in the Earth’s Orbit (ii) Position on 22nd December In this position, the Sun shines
— The Earth revolves around the Sun in an elliptical perpendicularly over the Tropic of Capricorn. This position is called
orbit every 365 days with the Sun at one focus. This winter solstice. During this period, days are long and nights are short
orbital state too is not static. The ellipticity of the in the Southern hemisphere and vice-versa in Northern hemisphere.
orbit, changes, also in a periodic way, with this (iii) Position on 21st March The Sun starts shifting towards North
period being the longest at around 100000 years, the gradually from 21st March. This position marks the summer in the
ellipticity changes from 0.01 to 0.007. Northern hemisphere and winter in the Southern hemisphere. On
— In summary, these three motions can be thought of this day, the Sun also shines directly overhead the equator. It is
as a 100000 years stretch of the orbital ellipse, a called spring equinox.
40000 years tilt of the rotational axis, together with a (iv) Position on 23rd September The Sun shines directly overhead the
26000 years wobble of the rotational axis. Wobble equator. Therefore, half part of all latitudes receives the sunlight at
and stretch are actually coupled, if one changes the these times. Hence, everywhere the duration of the day and night is
equal. Seasons are also similar in both the hemispheres. It is called
other is also forced to change alongwith it.
autumn equinox.
Magbook ~ The Earth 13

Effects of Earth’s Motion — During the winter and summer solstices, the area
on the Earth between the Arctic circle (at 66.5° N
— Alongwith creating day-night and seasons, the motions also create latitude) and the North pole has 24 hours of
spatial temperature variations on the Earth. darkness and daylight, respectively.
— Sun oscillates overhead regions within the tropics. Sunlight is — The same phenomena occurs for the area
concentrated time-to-time over these regions, but it becomes between the Antarctic circle (at 66.5° S latitude)
gradually oblique and faint towards the poles. So, tropical regions and the South pole, except that the seasons are
are net gainers of heat during respective summer seasons and reversed in the Southern hemisphere. At the
beyond these regions are permanent net loser of heat on Earth. poles, the Sun is below the horizon for 6 months
Whereas the equatorial region is always net gainer of heat on of the year.
Earth. — For those living outside the tropics (poleward of
23.5° North and South latitude), the noon Sun will
Latitudes never shine directly overhead.
— The points at which the rotational axis intersects the Earth’s
surface are called North pole and South pole. Latitude which Longitudes
divides the Earth into two equal halves is called equator. Its value — Since, the equator is a circle, it can be divided
is 0°. The position of all the latitudes is either to North or to South into 360 divisions and the imaginary line joining
of the equator. The Northern half of the Earth from the equator is both the poles passing through such divisional
known as the Northern hemisphere and the Southern half is points on the equator are like semi-circles and
known as the Southern hemisphere. called meridians.
— The latitude of a place is the angular distance of a place North or — Unlike the equator, which is centrally placed
South of the equator, as measured in degrees from the center of between the poles, any meridian could have been
the Earth. taken to begin the numbering. It was finally
— The line of latitude are drawn parallel to the equator in circles, so decided in 1884, to choose as the zero meridian,
called parallels and grow smaller towards the poles. Thus, latitude the one which passes through the Royal
of the great circle or equator is the largest and nearly a point at Astronomical Observatory at Greenwich, near
the poles. London.
— Total number of latitudes are 181 and the most important lines of — This is the Prime Meridian (0°) from which all
0
1 other meridians radiate Eastwards and Westwards
latitude are the Equator (0°), the Tropic of Cancer (23 N), the
2 upto 180°.
10 1° — Less conventionally, the part of the Earth on the
Tropic of Capricorn (23 S), the Arctic Circle ( 66 N) and the
2 2 Eastern side of the Prime Meridian is called
1 Eastern hemisphere and that on the Western side
Antarctic Circle (66 °S), North Pole (90° N) and South Pole
2 of it is called Western hemisphere.
(90° S). — These meridians shows the longitude of a place on
— The average latitudinal distance of 1° is about 69 miles or the globe at its angular distance, East or West of
111 km. As the Earth is slightly flattened at the poles, the linear the Prime Meridian.
distance of a degree of latitude at the pole is little longer than that — The Prime Meridian and the 180° longitude that
at the equator. lies just opposite to the Prime Meridian together
North Pole form one complete circle. From Prime Meridian,
75°
90°
75° North Eastward longitudes are marked as ‘E’ upto 179°E
60° Latitude
60°
and Westward longitudes are marked as ‘W’ upto
45° 45°
179°W, but 180° is left unlabelled. So, there are
30° 30°
total 360 longitudes.
15° 15°

Equator 0° 0° Equator
— Like latitudes, longitudes also can be sub-divided
15°
15° into minutes (′) or seconds (′′ ) for precise
30°
30° locational analysis. As the parallels of latitude
45° 45° become shorter polewards, so the meridians of
60° 60° South longitude which converge at the poles, enclose a
75° 75° Latitude narrower space. The degree of longitude therefore
90°

South Pole decrease in length towards pole. For this reason,

Latitudes on Earth they are not used for calculating distances.
14 Magbook ~ Geography–India and World

North Pole
150°
165° 180° 165°
150°
Distribution of Date
105°
135°
120°
135°
120° and Time
105°
90° 90° — To eliminate the confusion of time and
75° 75° date at local and international level, the
60° 60°
45° 45°
world is divided into standard time
30° 30°
15° 0° 15° belts. Prime Meridian is used as the
basis for reckoning of international time,
Meridian

Meridian
which is the reference of local time or
Prime

Prime
noon of Greenwich Meridian.
West East
— Earth rotates from West to East, hence,
Longitude Longitude places situated in the East of Prime
South Pole Meridian experience Sun rise earlier
Longitudes on Earth than the places in the West.
— Earth takes 24 hours for one complete
Great Circles and Small Circles rotation of 360°, it implies the Sun
— A great circle is a circle, which divides the Earth into two equal parts or appears to move at the rate of 15° in
hemispheres. 1 hour or 1° in 4 minutes. Sun is
overhead each meridian after
— A great circle is the longest circle that can be drawn on the globe.
4 minutes, such position can be taken
Conversely, a circle on the surface of the Earth, that does not pass through
for calculation of local time.
the center of the Earth and thus, divides the Earth into two unequal parts is
called a small circle. — Taking Greenwich Meridian as standard
time zone (GMT), the whole world has
— Among the parallels of latitude, only the equator is a great circle and all
been divided into 24 standard time
other parallels are small circles. However, among the meridians of longitude,
zones, each of which differs from the
all are semi-circles and form great circle alongwith meridian running
next by 15° in longitude or 1 hour in
opposite side. Apparently, an infinite number of great circles can be drawn
time.
on the surface of Earth.
— Every 15° we go Eastwards, local time is
advanced by 1 hour and conversely if
Important Facts on Longitude and Latitudes
we go Westward, local time is retarded
The Equator passes through 13 countries: Ecuador, Colombia, Brazil, Sao Tome and by 1 hour. Places East of Prime
Principe, Gabon and Republic of the Congo, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Meridian see the Sun earlier and gain
Uganda, Kenya, Somalia, Maldives, Indonesia and Kiribati. Among physical features, time, whereas places West of it see the
the equator passes through Andes, Mouth of Amazon, Congo basin, Lake Victoria, Sun later and lose time. A simple
Mouth of R Juba (Somalia), Sumatra, Borneo. memory technique may be East Gain
The Tropic of Cancer at 23 ½° N runs through Mexico, Egypt, Saudi Arabia, India, Add (EGA) and West Lose Subtract
Bangladesh, Myanmar, South China and Taiwan. Among physical features, it passes (WLS) for finding the local time of a
through Gulf of Mexico, Mexican plateau, Saharan desert, river Nile, Red sea, region if GMT is known.
Arabian peninsula, Arabian sea, Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghna confluence, Indo-China — Indian Government has accepted the
peninsula and Red river in China. 1
Tropic of Capricorn at 23½ S runs through Chile, Northern Argentina, Paraguay, meridian of 82 E for the standard
2
Southern Brazil, Botswana, Northern South Africa, Madagascar, Australia etc among time, which is 5 hours 30 minutes
major countries. Among major physical features, it passes through Andes, ahead of GMT. Nepal and Sri Lanka
Granchaco, Brazilian highlands, Namib desert, Kalahari desert, Mozambia channel, also follow the same standard time.
Great Dividing range etc.
— Some larger countries adopt several
Antarctic Circle (66½ N) passes through entirely over ocean except some part of time zones for practical purposes i.e.
Antarctica Arctic circle (66½ N) passes through Bejing strait, Alaska, Davis strait,
Russia has 11 time zones, USA and
Greenland, Scandinavia and Siberian plateau.
Canada has 5 time zones, Australia has
Prime Meridian passes through United Kingdom, Paris, Spain, Algeria, Mali, Ghana 3 time zones, but China has only 1 time
etc. zone.