CHAPTER FIVE

CHARACTERISTIC AND PERFORMANCE OF

POWER TRANSMISSION LINES

 Representation of transmission lines

 Short, medium and long transmission lines
 Power flow through transmission lines
 Reactive power compensation of transmission lines
 REPRESENTATION OF TRANSMISSION LINES

• Transmission Line Representation

• Electrical parameters: R, L, C, G

• Lumped vs distributed parameter models

• Overhead line modeling assumptions

• Use of single-line diagrams

• π-model and T-model equivalents

 ELECTRICAL PARAMETERS
• Transmission Line Electrical Parameters

• Resistance (R): conductor heating losses

• Inductance (L): magnetic flux around conductors

• Capacitance (C): potential difference between phases

• Conductance (G): insulation leakage

 CATEGORY OF TRANSMISSION LINES
• The transmission lines are categorized as three types-
1) Short transmission line:- the line length is up to 80 km and the operating
voltage is < 20 kV.
2) Medium transmission line:- the line length is between 80 km to 160 km
and the operating voltage is > 20 kV and < 100kV
3) Long transmission line :- the line length is more than 160 km and the
operating voltage is >100 kV(reading assignment)
 ….CONT’D

• Whatever may be the category of transmission line, the main aim is to transmit
power from one end to another.

• Like other electrical system, the transmission network also will have some power
loss and voltage drop during transmitting power from sending end to receiving
end.

• Hence, performance of transmission line can be determined by its efficiency

and voltage regulation
….CONT’D
 SHORT TRANSMISSION LINE
• Short Transmission Lines (L < 80 km) and voltage < 20KV

• Shunt capacitance negligible

• Series impedance dominates

• Equivalent model: Z = R + jX

• Calculations:

• Voltage drop

• Regulation

• Efficiency
Fig 5.1representation of a short transmission line
 ….CONT’D

• As stated earlier, the effects of line capacitance are neglected for a short
transmission line.

• Therefore, while studying the performance of such a line, only resistance and
inductance of the line are taken into account.

• Here, the total line resistance and inductance are shown as concentrated or
lumped instead of being distributed. The circuit is a simple a.c. series circuit.
 ….CONT’D

• Let
I = load current

R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors

XL= loop reactance

VR = receiving end voltage

cos φR = receiving end power factor (lagging)

 VS= sending end voltage

cos φS= sending end power factor

From the right angled triangle ODC, we get,
….CONT’D
 MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINES
• Medium Transmission Lines (80–250 km)

• Capacitance cannot be ignored

• Use End condenser, Nominal T or Nominal π model

• Performance parameters:
• Sending-end voltage
• Receiving-end voltage
• Voltage regulation
• Efficiency
 ….CONT’D

• The capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line.

• However, in order to make the calculations simple, the line capacitance is

assumed to be lumped or concentrated in the form of capacitors shunted
across the line at one or more points.

• Such a treatment of localizing the line capacitance gives reasonably accurate

results.

• The most commonly used methods (known as localized capacitance

methods) for the solution of medium transmissions lines are:-
 ….CONT’D
( i) End condenser method
( ii) Nominal T method
( iii) Nominal π method.

• Although the above methods are used for obtaining the performance
calculations of medium lines, they can also be used for short lines if their
line capacitance is given in a particular problem.
( i) End condenser method
 …CONT’D

• In this method, the capacitance of the line is lumped or

concentrated at the receiving end of the line as shown in fig.

• This method of localizing the line capacitance at the load end

overestimates the effect of capacitance.
 ( II) NOMINAL T METHOD

• In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be

concentrated at the middle point of the line.

• Half of the line resistance and reactance are lumped on the

either side as shown in fig.

• In this arrangement, full charging current flows over half the

line
TakingVR as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram is shown in the fig
 ( III) NOMINAL Π METHOD.
• In this method, the capacitance of each conductor (i.e. line to
neutral) is divided into two halves; one half being lumped at the
sending end and the other half at the receiving end as shown in
the fig.
• It is obvious that capacitance at the sending end has no effect
on the line drop. However, its charging current must be added to
the line current to obtain the total sending end current.
TakingVR as the reference phasor, the phasor diagram is shown in the fig.
Nominal π Method (a) Circuit Diagram and (b) Vector Diagram
Taking receiving end voltageVR as reference
EXAMPLES
….CONT’D
….CONT’D
 ….CONT’D

3)
EXERCISES1
EXERCISES 2
 POWER FLOW THROUGH TRANSMISSION LINE

• Power is among the most important concepts in electrical engineering

as it determines how much energy flows from your circuit to whatever
device you are attaching.

• Here, we will discuss what is active and reactive power, the difference
between active power, reactive power, and apparent power, and
how this affects performance in AC circuits.
•
 …CONT’D
What is Active Power?

• Active power is the usable or consumed electrical energy in an AC

circuit

• has units of watt (W) or kilowatt (kW).

• True power or real power is another name for active power,

• it's the kind that actually does useful work in circuit-heating LED lights,
light bulbs, whatever.
 …CONT’D

• The formula for active power is:

P=V×I×cosϕ
• Where P is the active power, V is the RMS voltage, I is the RMS current,
and ϕ is the phase angle between the voltage and current.

• Active power is the energy actually used in load. Intermediate power

is also the power produced by a source of energy, like a generator or
battery.
 …CONT’D

What is Reactive Power?

• Reactive power is the alternating current flowing back and forth in an
electric circuit.
• The unit used for reactive power is volt-amperes reactive (VAR) or
kilovolt-ampere active (kVAR). R.P.,
• A term also used for imaginary power or wattless power, is the form of
energy stored and released by the reactive components within
current flowing through an electric circuit--most commonly inductors
(inductance) and capacitors (capacitance).
• The formula for reactive power is:
Q=V×I×sinϕ
 …CONT’D
• Where Q is the reactive power, V is the RMS voltage, I is the RMS
current, and ϕ is the phase angle between the voltage and current.

• This power is not useful to the circuit, but it must be maintained for the
voltage and current levels.

• Also, reactive power creates inefficiencies and loss of energy by

increasing apparent power, which promotes a greater flow of current.
 …CONT’D
What is Apparent Power?

• The apparent power of a sinusoidal AC circuit can be calculated

simply as the product of its RMS values for voltage and current.

• It is measured in volt-amperes (VA) or kilovolt-amps (kVA).

• Power is called apparent power, complex power, or total gave, and

this refers to the net delivered from a source by a line.
 …CONT’D

• The apparent power is found by multiplying the RMS values of voltage

and current, regardless of any phase relationship.

• The formula for apparent power is:

S=V×I

• Where S is the apparent power, V is the RMS voltage, and I is the RMS
current
…CONT’D
 REACTIVE POWER COMPENSATION IN TRANSMISSION LINE

• Reactive Power Compensation

• Improves voltage profile

• Reduces line losses

• Increases power transfer capability

• Enhances system stability

• Methods:
• Series compensation
• Shunt compensation
• FACTs Controllers
 SERIES COMPENSATION

• Definition: Series compensation is the method of improving the system

voltage by connecting a capacitor in series with the transmission line.

• In other words, in series compensation, reactive power is inserted in

series with the transmission line for improving the impedance of the
system.

• It improves the power transfer capability of the line. It is mostly used in

extra and ultra high voltage line.
 …CONT’D

Series compensation has several advantages like:-

• It increases transmission capacity,
• Improve system stability,
• Control voltage regulation and
• Ensure proper load division among parallel feeders.
These advantages are discussed below
 …CONT’D

• Improvement in System Stability – For same power transfer and for the
same value of sending and receiving end voltage, the phase angle δ
in the case of the series impedance line is less that for the
uncompensated line.

• The reduced value of δ gives higher stability.

 …CONT’D

• Load Division among Parallel Line – Series capacitors are used in transmission systems
for improving the load division between parallel lines.

• When the new line with large power transfer capability is paralleled with an already
existing line, then it is difficult to load the new line without overloading the old line.

• In such case the series compensation reduces the series reactance and proper load
division among parallel circuit can be done easily.

• Load division increases the power transfer capability of the system and reduced losses
 …CONT’D

• Control of Voltage – In series capacitor, there is an automatic change

in Var (reactive power) with the change in load current.

• Thus the drops in voltage levels due to sudden load variations are
corrected instantly.
 SHUNT COMPENSATION

• Shunt compensation in power systems uses devices like capacitors

and reactors connected in parallel (shunt) to transmission lines to
inject or absorb reactive power (VARs) for voltage control, improving
power factor, voltage stability, and power transfer capability by
maintaining voltage profiles and reducing line drops.
 …CONT’D
Shunt Compensation

• Used for voltage support

• Provides or absorbs reactive power

• Devices:

• Shunt capacitor banks

• Shunt reactors
…CONT’D
 FACTS CONTROLLERS
FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission Systems) controllers are power electronics devices

that:-
boost power flow,
enhance stability, and
improve reliability in AC grids by controlling voltage, impedance, and phase
angle dynamically,
with key types including
shunt devices (STATCOM, SVC) for voltage support,
series devices (TCSC, TSSC) for impedance control, and
unified controllers (UPFC, IPFC) for advanced power flow management, significantly
increasing existing line capacity without new construction.