CHAPTER 2: TECHNIQUES OF INTEGRATION
FULLY EXPLAINED NOTES WITH DEFINITIONS AND WORKED EXAMPLES
============================================================
1. INTRODUCTION TO INTEGRATION
Definition:
Integration is a mathematical process used to find total accumulation such as area, volume, distance,
and other physical quantities. It is the reverse process of differentiation.
If F'(x) = f(x), then:
∫ f(x) dx = F(x) + C
Where:
∫ = Integral sign
f(x) = Integrand
dx = Variable of integration
C = Constant of integration
Types of Integrals:
1. Indefinite Integral – contains constant C.
2. Definite Integral – has limits and gives a numerical value.
Example 1:
Find ∫ 3x² dx
Solution:
∫ 3x² dx = 3 ∫ x² dx
= 3 * (x³ / 3)
= x³ + C
2. ELEMENTARY INTEGRATION FORMULAS
(A) Power Rule: The power rule for integration states that to find the indefinite
Integral of a variable raised to a constant power, you increase the exponent by one and then divide
the term by this new exponent. A constant of integration (c) is always added for indefinite integrals.
Formula:
∫ x^n dx = x^(n+1) / (n + 1) + C
Example:
∫ x^4 dx = x^5 / 5 + C
(B) Logarithmic Rule: The logarithmic rule for integration states that the indefinite integral of one
over a variable (1/x) is the natural logarithm of the absolute value of that variable, plus a constant of
integration.
Formula:
∫ 1/x dx = ln|x| + C
Example:
∫ 1/y dx = ln|y| + C
(C) Exponential:
∫ e^x dx = e^x + C
Example:
∫ e^x dx = e^x + C
3. INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
Definition:
Integration by substitution is a method for evaluating integrals by transforming them into a simpler
form through a change of variable.
Formula:
If u = f(x), then:
∫ f'(x)g(f(x)) dx = ∫ g(u) du
Example:
Find ∫ 2x(x² + 1)³ dx
Solution:
Let u = x² + 1
Then du = 2x dx
∫ 2x(x² + 1)³ dx = ∫ u³ du
= u^4/ 4 + C
= (x² + 1)^4 / 4 + C
============================================================
4. INTEGRATION BY PARTS:
is a fundamental technique in calculus used to find the integral of a product of two functions. it is
essentially the reverse of the product rule for differentiation.
Definition:
Used to integrate the product of two functions.
Formula:
∫ u dv = uv − ∫ v du
Example:
Find ∫ x e^x dx
Solution:
u = x → du = dx
dv = e^x dx → v = e^x
∫ x e^x dx = x e^x − ∫ e^x dx
= x e^x − e^x + C
===========================================================
5. TRIGONOMETRIC SUBSTITUTION
is an advanced integration technique used primarily to evaluate integrals that contains specific
algebraic expressions involving square roots, where the expression resembles the Pythagorean
theorem identities.
Formula:
√(a² − x²) → x = a sinθ
√(a² + x²) → x = a tanθ
Example:
Evaluate ∫ √(9 − x²) dx
Let x = 3 sinθ
Then dx = 3 cosθ dθ
Integral becomes:
∫ √(9 − 9 sin²θ) (3 cosθ dθ)
= ∫ 9 cos²θ dθ
=================================================================
6. RATIONAL FUNCTION INTEGRALS
Definition: A rational function is a fraction of two polynomials
Example:
Find ∫ 1 / (x² − 1) dx
Solution:
1 / (x² − 1) = 1 / *(x − 1)(x + 1)+
= A/(x − 1) + B/(x + 1)
Solve:
1 = A(x + 1) + B(x − 1)
A = 1/2, B = −1/2
∫ = 1/2 ln|x − 1| − 1/2 ln|x + 1| + C
===================================================================
7. TRIGONOMETRIC INTEGRALS
Definition: refer to integral that involve trigonometric functions in the integrand, or integrals that
can be simplified into a form involving trigonometric functions, often through the use if
trigonometric identities or trigonometric substitution.
If sine is odd → save one sine
If cosine is odd → save one cosine
Example:
∫ sin³x dx = ∫ sin²x sin x dx
= ∫ (1 − cos²x) sin x dx
Let u = cos x
Then du = −sin x dx
Result:
= −cos x + cos³x / 3 + C
==================================================
8. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION
(A) AREA UNDER A CURVE
Area under a curve between x = a and x = b is:
Area = ∫b_a f(x) dx
Example:
Find area under y = x² from 0 to 2
Area = ∫^2_0x^2² x² dx
= [x³ / 3]²_0
= 8/3 square units
------------------------------------------------------------
(B) VOLUME OF SOLIDS OF REVOLUTION
Disk Method:
V = π ∫ R² dx
Example:
Find volume if y = x² from 0 to 2
V = π ∫²_0 x^4 dx
= π *x^5 / 5+²_0
= 32π / 5
------------------------------------------------------------
(C) SHELL METHOD:
V = 2π ∫ (radius)(height) dx
============================================================
9. ARC LENGTH
L = ∫ √(1 + (dy/dx)²) dx
Example:
Find arc length of y = x² from 0 to 1
============================================================
10. SURFACE AREA
SA = ∫ 2πy √(1 + (dy/dx)²) dx
Example:
Surface formed when y = x² rotated about x-axis
============================================================
CONCLUSION
This chapter provides powerful tools for solving problems involving area, volume, distance, and
physical motion. A strong understanding of integration techniques is essential for engineering,
economics,
physics, computer science, and data science.
============================================================