1.
Electrolysis of blue copper(II) sulfate solution
Copper(II) ions (Cu2+)are blue in colour.
a) Carbon electrodes are used
The blue solution loses its colour.
Explanation:
● Carbon electrodes are inert (they do not react).
● During electrolysis:
○ At the cathode, copper(II) ions gain electrons and form copper metal:
Cu2++2e−→Cu
● Copper(II) ions are removed from the solution, so the blue colour gradually fades.
b) Copper electrodes are used
The blue solution keeps its colour.
Explanation:
● Copper electrodes are not inert.
● During electrolysis:
○ At the cathode, copper(II) ions are discharged to form copper metal.
○ At the anode, copper metal dissolves to form copper(II) ions:
Cu→Cu2++2e−
● The number of copper(II) ions in solution remains the same, so the blue colour does
not change.
2. Evidence that copper electrodes are not inert
● The anode loses mass because copper dissolves into the solution as copper(II) ions.
● This shows that the copper electrode reacts during electrolysis, so it is not inert.
3. What is electroplating?
Electroplating is the process of coating an object with a thin layer of another metal using
electric current.
4. Two reasons for electroplating
1. To prevent corrosion or rusting.
2. To improve appearance (make objects shiny or attractive).
5. Why is steel used for soup cans coated with tin?
● Tin prevents rusting of steel.
● Tin is less reactive and non-toxic, so it is safe for storing food.
6. Electroplating steel cutlery with nickel
a) Anode
● Nickel metal
b) Cathode
● Steel cutlery
c) Suitable electrolyte
● Nickel sulfate solution (contains Ni2+ ions)
Electroplating –
What is electroplating?
Electroplating is the process of coating the surface of one metal with a thin layer of
another metal using electricity.
Parts of an electroplating cell
● Cathode (–):
The object to be electroplated
● Anode (+):
Made of the pure metal that is used for coating
● Electrolyte:
An aqueous solution of a soluble salt of the metal used for plating
Electroplating iron with tin
Setup:
● Cathode: Iron strip
● Anode: Pure tin
● Electrolyte: Tin(II) chloride solution (SnCl₂)
Reactions at the electrodes
At the anode (oxidation):
● Tin atoms lose electrons and enter the solution as ions
Sn (s)→Sn2+(aq)+2e−
At the cathode (reduction):
● Tin ions gain electrons and form tin metal
Sn2+(aq)+2e−→Sn (s)
● Tin metal is deposited on the iron, forming a protective coating
Key redox idea
● Oxidation = loss of electrons (OIL)
● Reduction = gain of electrons (RIG)
What is electroplating used for?
1. To prevent corrosion
● Coating metals makes them more resistant to rust and damage
● Examples:
○ Nickel plating
○ Chromium plating
○ Galvanising (zinc coating on iron or steel)
2. To improve appearance
● Makes metals shiny and attractive
● Examples:
○ Silver-plated cutlery
○ Gold-plated jewellery
Examiner Tips
● Be clear about:
○ Which electrode is the anode and cathode
○ The direction of electron flow
● Extended Tier students must:
○ Write correct ionic half-equations
○ Identify oxidation and reduction
● Always state state symbols: (s), (aq)
Hydrogen Fuel Cells
What is a fuel?
A fuel is a substance that releases energy when it reacts (is burned or used in a fuel cell).
Hydrogen as a fuel
● Hydrogen is used:
○ In rocket engines
○ In hydrogen fuel cells to power some vehicles
● Hydrogen releases energy when it reacts with oxygen.
What is a fuel cell?
A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell in which:
● A fuel donates electrons at one electrode
● Oxygen gains electrons at the other electrode
● Electrical energy is produced continuously as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied
Hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell reactions
At the anode (oxidation):
Hydrogen loses electrons:
H2→2H+ +2e−
At the cathode (reduction):
Oxygen gains electrons:
O2+ 4H+ +4e− →2H2O
Overall reaction
2H2+O2→2H2O
● Energy and electricity are produced
● Water is the only chemical product
Key features of a hydrogen fuel cell
● Hydrogen is supplied as the fuel
● Oxygen comes from air
● Electrons flow through an external circuit, producing electricity
● No combustion occurs
Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages of hydrogen fuel cells
● Hydrogen can be produced from water, making it renewable
● No air pollution at point of use (only water produced)
● Release more energy per kilogram than petrol or diesel
● No moving parts, so:
○ Less energy loss
○ Higher efficiency
● Quieter, reducing noise pollution
Disadvantages of hydrogen fuel cells
● Hydrogen production may involve:
○ Fossil fuels, releasing carbon dioxide
○ Electrolysis, which uses large amounts of electricity
● Fuel cells use expensive materials
● Hydrogen is:
○ Highly flammable
○ Difficult and expensive to store and transport
● Less efficient at low temperatures
● Very few hydrogen filling stations available
Endothermic & Exothermic Reactions
Heat exchange in chemical reactions
Chemical reactions occur so that atoms achieve a more stable energy state by forming
chemical bonds.
● Energy is stored in chemical bonds
● During reactions, thermal energy is transferred between:
○ System: the reacting chemicals
○ Surroundings: everything else
Exothermic reactions
In exothermic reactions, thermal energy is released from the system to the surroundings.
● Energy flows out of the system
● Temperature of surroundings increases
● Energy of the system decreases
● Overall energy change is negative
Examples
● Combustion reactions
● Oxidation reactions
● Neutralisation reactions
● Hand warmers
● Self-heating food and drink containers
Endothermic reactions
In endothermic reactions, thermal energy is absorbed from the surroundings into the
system.
● Energy flows into the system
● Temperature of surroundings decreases
● Energy of the system increases
● Overall energy change is positive
Examples
● Electrolysis
● Thermal decomposition
● First stages of photosynthesis
● Instant cold packs (sports injuries)
Worked example: Temperature change
Experiment Observation Type of reaction Reason
1 Temperature increases (19 → 21 °C) Exothermic Heat released
2 Temperature decreases (20 → 16 °C) Endothermic Heat absorbed
3 Temperature increases (20 → 26 °C) Exothermic Heat released
4 Temperature increases (19 → 31 °C) Exothermic Heat released
Reaction pathway (energy profile) diagrams
Reaction pathway diagrams show energy changes during a reaction.
Axes
● x-axis: Progress of reaction
● y-axis: Energy
Overall energy change
● The difference in height between reactants and products
Exothermic reaction pathway
● Products have lower energy than reactants
● Energy is released
● Overall energy change is negative
● Shown by a downward arrow
Endothermic reaction pathway
● Products have higher energy than reactants
● Energy is absorbed
● Overall energy change is positive
● Shown by an upward arrow
Enthalpy Change & Activation Energy
Collision theory
For a chemical reaction to occur, particles must collide.
A collision will be successful only if:
● The particles collide with enough energy
● The particles collide with the correct orientation
● There are frequent collisions
Activation energy (Ea)
● Activation energy (Ea) is the minimum energy that colliding particles must have for
a reaction to occur.
● Only collisions with energy equal to or greater than Ea are successful.
● Reactions with:
○ High Ea → need more energy to start
○ Low Ea → start more easily
Activation energy is the energy barrier that must be overcome before products
can form.
Enthalpy change (ΔH)
● Enthalpy change (ΔH) is the thermal energy change during a chemical reaction.
● It compares the energy of reactants with the energy of products.
Sign of ΔH
● ΔH is negative → Exothermic reaction
● ΔH is positive → Endothermic reaction
Bond energy
● Energy is absorbed to break bonds in reactants
● Energy is released when new bonds form in products
Exothermic reactions
● More energy is released forming product bonds than absorbed breaking reactant bonds
● Products have lower energy than reactants
● ΔH is negative
Reaction pathway diagram features
● Reactants start at a higher energy
● Products finish at a lower energy
● A peak represents the activation energy
● Overall energy change shown by a downward arrow
Endothermic reactions
● More energy is absorbed breaking reactant bonds than released forming product
bonds
● Products have higher energy than reactants
● ΔH is positive
Reaction pathway diagram features
● Reactants start at a lower energy
● Products finish at a higher energy
● A peak represents the activation energy
● Overall energy change shown by an upward arrow