Food Processing and

Engineering − UNIT 4 STORAGE

Introduction
Structure

4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Storage Parameters for Fresh Produce
4.3 Damages during Storage
4.4 Direct Damages
4.5 Indirect Damages
4.6 Sources of Infestation
4.7 Storage Requirements
4.8 Storage Process
4.9 Traditional Storage Structure
4.10 Improved Storage Structures
4.11 Modern Storage Structures
4.12 Controlled and Modified Atmosphere Storage or Hyperbolic Storage
4.13 Losses in Storage
4.14 Relevant Standards
4.15 Let Us Sum up
4.16 Key Words
4.17 Answer to Check Your Progress Exercises
4.18 Some Useful Books

4.0 OBJECTIVES
By the time you have studied this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the importance of storage;

• understand the type of damages take place during storage;
• identify the traditional and improved storage system being followed; and
• underline the types of losses take place.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
Horticultural crops not only provide us with nutritional and healthy foods, but
also generate a cash income to growers. Appropriate production practices,
careful harvesting and proper packaging, storage and transport contribute to the
good produce quality. Once a crop is harvested it is impossible to improve its
quality. The horticultural crops, because of their high moisture content are
inherently more liable to deteriorate especially under tropical conditions.
Moreover, they are biologically active and carry out transpiration, respiration,
ripening and other biochemical activities, which deteriorate the quality of the
produce.
Losses during post harvest operations due to improper storage and handling are
enormous and can range from 10-40 percent. Post harvest losses can occur in
the field, in packing areas, in storage, during transportation and in the
wholesale and retail markets. Severe losses occur because of poor facilities,
lack of know-how, poor management, market dysfunction or simply the

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carelessness of farmers. Losses can be reduced if proper storage process is Storage
adopted after harvesting.
Storage of fresh fruit and vegetable produce is an important economic aspect
as it stabilizes prices, avoids glut in the market, and makes fruits and
vegetables available in off season. Storage extends the usefulness and
availability of vegetables and fruits since deterioration of the freshness is
minimized. Storage also avoids wastage, relieves stress during main season
and assures regular supply to the consumers with high quality fruits and
vegetables. If not stored, the farmers have to sell the produce soon after harvest
at throwaway prices in the market and they suffer great loss. Therefore,
creation of storage facilities is essential for proper development of vegetable
and fruit industries in the country.

4.2 STORAGE PARAMETERS FOR FRESH PRODUCE

Temperature and humidity management remains the most effective tool for
extending the shelf life of fresh horticultural produce. The following table
gives approximate storage life and recommended temperature and humidity
levels for commercial storage.

Commodity Temp (0C) Relative Approximate Highest

humidity (%) storage life freezing
point
Apples -1 to 4 90-95 1-12 months -1.5
Apricots -0.5 to 0 90-95 1-3 weeks -1.0
Bananas, green 13 to 14 90-95 - -0.7
Blackberries -0.5 to 0 90-95 2-3 days -0.7
Blueberries -0.5 to 0 90-95 2 weeks -1.2
Cranberries 2 to 4 90-95 2-4 months -0.8
Currants -0.5 to 0 90-95 1-4 weeks -1.0
Dewberries -0.5 to 0 90-95 2-3 days -1.2
Elderberries -0.5 to 0 90-95 1-2 weeks -
Loganberries -0.5 to 0 90-95 2-3 days -1.2
Raspberries -0.5 to 0 90-95 2-3 days -1.0
Strawberries 0 90-95 5-7 days -0.7
Carambola 9 to 10 85-90 3-4 weeks -
Cherries, sour 0 90-95 3-7 days -1.7
Cherries, sweet -1 to -0.5 90-95 2-3 weeks -1.8
Coconuts 0to 1.5 80-85 1-2 months -0.9
Dates -18 or 0 75 6-12 months -15.7
Figs, fresh -0.5 to 0 85-90 7-10 days -2.4
Grapes -1 to -0.5 90-95 1-6 months -2.1
Guavas 5 to 10 90 2-3 weeks -

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Food Processing and
Engineering − Kiwifruit -0.5 to 0 90-95 3-5 months -1.6
Introduction Lemons 7 to 13 85-90 1-6 months -1.4
Limes 9 to 10 85-90 6-8 weeks -1.6
Loquats 0 90 3 weeks -
Lychees 1.5 90-95 3-5 weeks -
Mangos 13 85-90 2-3 weeks -0.9
Nectarines -0.5 to 0 90-95 2-4 weeks -0.9
Olives, fresh 5 to 10 85-90 4-6 weeks -1.4
Papayas 7 85-90 1-3 weeks -0.9
Passion fruit 7-10 85-90 3-5 weeks -
Peaches -0.5-0 90-95 2-4 weeks -0.9
Pears -1.5 to -0.5 90-95 2-7 months -1.5
Persimmons, -1 90 3-4 months -2.1
Japanese
Pineapples 7 to 13 85-90 2-4 weeks -1.1
Plums and -0.5 to 0 90-95 2-5 weeks -0.8
prunes
Pomegranates 5 90-95 2-3 months -3.0
Quinces -0.5 to 0 90 2-3 months -2.0
Artichokes, 0 95-100 2-3 weeks -1.1
globe
Beans, dry 4 to 10 40-50 6-10 months -
Beans, green or 4 to 7 95 7-10 days -0.7
snap
Beans, lima 3 to 5 95 5-7 days -0.6
Bean sprouts 0 95-100 7-9 days -
Beets, bunched 0 98-100 10-14 days -0.4
Beets, topped 0 98-100 4-6 months -0.9
Broccoli 0 95-100 10-14 days -0.6
Brussels sprouts 0 95-100 3-5 weeks -0.8
Cabbage 0 98-100 3-6 weeks -0.9
Carrots 0 95-100 2 weeks -
Carrots, mature 0 98-100 7-9 months -1.4
Cauliflower 0 95-98 3-4 weeks -0.8
Celery 0 98-100 2-3 months -0.5
Corn, sweet 0 95-98 5-8 days -0.6
Cucumbers 10 to 13 95 10-14 days -0.5
Eggplants 8 to 12 90-95 1 week -0.8

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 Storage
Garlic 0 65-70 6-7 months -0.8
Ginger 13 65 6 months -
Greens, leafy 0 95-100 10-14 days -
Horseradish -1.0 to 0 98-100 10-12 months -1.8
Lettuce 0 98-100 2-3 weeks -0.2
Watermelons 10 to 15 90 2-3 weeks -0.4
Mushrooms 0 95 3-4 days -0.9
Okra 7 to 10 90-95 7-10 days -1.8
Onion, green 0 95-100 3-4 weeks -0.9
Onion, dry 0 65-70 1-8 months -0.8
Onion sets 0 65-70 6-8 months -0.8
Parsley 0 95-100 2-2.5 months -1.1
Parsnips 0 98-100 4-6 months -0.9
Peppers, chilli 0 to 10 60-70 6 months -
(dry)
Peppers, sweet 7 to 13 90-95 2-3 weeks -0.7
Potatoes 0 90-95 5-10 months -0.6
Pumpkins 10 to 13 50-70 2-3 months -0.8
Radishes 0 95-100 3-4 weeks -0.7
Spinach 0 95-100 10-14 days -0.3
Sweet potatoes 13 to 16 85-90 4-7 months -1.3
Tomatoes, 13 to 21 90-95 1-3 weeks -0.6
mature-green
Tomatoes, firm- 8 to 10 90-95 4-7days -0.5
ripe
Turnips 0 95 4-5 months -1.0
Turnip greens 0 95-100 10-14 days -0.2

4.3 DAMAGES DURING STORAGE

Insect/ pests form one of the most important factors responsible for losses in
agricultural production at various stages. Living organisms and the
environment interact to bring about spoilage of stored products. Living
organisms may be plants, insects, pests, man, animal, bacteria, fungi etc. High
post-harvest losses are caused by the invasion of fungi, bacteria, insects and
other organisms. Micro-organisms attack fresh produce easily and spread
quickly, because the produce does not have much of a natural defence
mechanism and has plenty of nutrients and moisture to support microbial
growth. Control of Post harvest decay is becoming a more difficult task,
because the number of pesticides available is falling rapidly as consumer
concern for food safety increases.

79
Food Processing and It is estimated that 5 to 10% of the world food production is damaged by
Engineering − insects during storage. The estimated losses due to insects in India have been
Introduction
estimated to be around 3% of the country’s production. Insects feed on the
germ and endosperm causing loss in weight as well as nutrients. Besides, they
cause contamination with their excreta and dead bodies. The damages can be
grouped into, (1) direct damages, and (2) indirect damages.

4.4 DIRECT DAMAGES

i) Few insects consume germ as well as some endosperm and the others eat
away both. It causes in loss of weight, loss of nutrients, loss of
germination power, loss in gradation and consequently falls in market
value.
ii) The contamination may be with the dead bodies, excreta, cast skin, odour.
iii) Structures and containers also get damaged by causing tunneling in
wooden parts.

4.5 INDIRECT DAMAGES

i) It occurs when heat is created and migration of moisture takes place.
ii) It creates distribution of parasites to man. Few tape worms select stored
grain insects as intermediate hosts.

4.6 SOURCES OF INFESTATION

Infestation sources are mainly five types, the field itself, infested bags, infested
transport, infested godown and infested stocks.
Field: Insects may attack the crop in the field itself and same is brought to the
storage centers where it continues attack. The infestation may be visible or
invisible. Fumigation should be done immediately to check the growth of
insects.
Infested bags: When new bags are used for packing the newly harvested
produce, the insects hiding in the seams of the bags may attack the freshly
harvested produce. The gunnies should be fumigated prior to packing the
freshly harvested produced.
Infested transport: DDVP or Malathion should be sprayed on transport used
for carrying the newly harvested produce. If the bullock cart or tractor trolley
has been used as the transport for carrying infested stocks on the previous
occasion, the left over insects may attack the fresh produce.
Infested godowns: The Godowns should be thoroughly cleaned and fumigated
as insects present in the cracks and crevices of the wall or that hibernate in the
structures, may emerge out and attack the produce.
Infested stocks: In case sound produce/stocks are brought to a storage unit
godown where infested stocks are in storage, cross infestation may takes place.

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 Storage
4.7 STORAGE REQUIREMENTS
For successful storage the conditions needed is a better product, optimum
required temperature, atmospheric humidity, right stage of maturity for the
product to be stored, and freedom from diseases and other injury. There is
rapid deterioration in injured or diseased products during storage, particularly
under conditions favourable for the development of storage rots. The main
storage principles are:
Relative Humidity
Transpiration rates (water loss from produce) are determine by the moisture
content of the air, which is usually expressed as relative humidity. At high
relative humidity, produce maintains saleable weight; appearance, nutritional
quality and flavour, while wilting, softening and juiciness are reduced. Leafy
vegetables with high surface-to-volume ratios; injured produce and immature
fruits and vegetables have higher transpiration rates. High temperatures, low
relative humidity and high air velocity increase transpiration rates.
Relative humidity needs to be monitored and controlled in storage. Control can
be achieved by a variety of methods:
1. Operating a humidifier in the storage area.
2. Regulating air movement and ventilation in relation to storage room load.
3. Maintaining refrigeration coil temperature within the storage room.
4. Using moisture barriers in the insulation of the storage room or transport
vehicle.
5. Wetting the storage room floor.
6. Using crushed ice to pack produce for shipment.
7. Sprinkling leafy vegetables, cool-season root vegetables and immature
fruits and vegetables with water.
Temperature
Respiration and metabolic rates are directly related to room temperatures
within a given range. The higher the rate of respiration, the faster the produce
deteriorates. Lower temperatures reduce respiration rates and the ripening and
senescence processes, which prolong the storage life of fruits and vegetables.
Low temperatures also slow the growth of pathogenic fungi, which cause
spoilage of fruits and vegetables in storage.
Producers should give special care and attention to proper storage conditions
for produce with high to extremely high respiration rates, as these crops will
deteriorate much more quickly.
It is impossible to make a single recommendation for cool storage of all fruits
and vegetables. Climate of the area where the crop originated, the plant part,
the season of harvest and crop maturity at harvest are important factors in
determining the optimum temperature. A general rule for vegetables is that
cool-season crops should be stored at cooler temperatures (0 to 1.7°C) and
warm-season crops should be stored at warmer temperatures (7 to 13°C).
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Food Processing and Freezing injury
Engineering −
Introduction Temperatures that are too low can be just as damaging as those too high.
Freezing will occur in all commodities below 0oC. Whether injury occurs
depends on the commodity. Some can be repeatedly frozen and thawed without
damage, while others are ruined by one freezing.
Injury from freezing temperatures can appear in plant tissues as loss of rigidity,
softening and water soaking. Injury can be reduced if the produce is allowed to
warm up slowly to optimum storage temperatures and if it is not handled
during the thawing period. Injured produce should be marketed immediately,
as freezing shortens its storage life.
Chilling injury
Fruits and vegetables that require warmer storage temperatures (4.5 to 13°C)
can be damaged if they are subjected to near-freezing temperatures (0°C).
Cooler temperatures interfere with normal metabolic processes. Injury
symptoms are varied and often do not develop until the produce has been
returned to warmer temperatures for several days. Besides physical damage,
chilled produce is often more susceptible to disease infection.
Quality and condition of material
If the fruits are over ripe, they will rot and get spoilt early and quickly. If they
are not ripe, the shrinkage can take place and make the product unfit for
consumption. The flavour and aroma also changes leading to an appreciable
reduction in sugar content and development of acidic (or off-flavour) flavours
under storage or transit due to high content of acids. There is also a
considerable change in original colour of skin, flesh, firmness, etc, and the
product (fruit, root, etc.) becomes soft. The chemical changes continue to take
place in immature product (fruits etc) after harvest. The starch content begins
to decline and there is increase in sugar content. Also a slow inversion of
sucrose to reducing sugars takes place.
Total nitrogen content almost remains the same, but the form of nitrogen is
changed, that is, protein and nitrogen decrease compared to soluble nitrogen,
fats, oils and waxes increase in storage but oil content increases faster
compared to rest. Regarding enzymes the activity of oxidase remains almost
constant while catalase activity becomes faster in storage. The mineral
constituents also remain constant in the storage. The respiration rate is faster
till the fruits are fully mature and finally over mature
Ethylene, a natural hormone produced by some fruits as they ripen, promotes
additional ripening of produce exposed to it. The old age saying that one bad
apple spoils the whole bushel is true. The damaged or diseased fruits produce
high levels of ethylene and stimulate the other apples to ripen too quickly. As
the fruits ripen, they become more susceptible to disease. Ethylene "producers"
should not be stored with fruits, vegetables, or flowers that are sensitive to it.
The result could be loss of quality, reduced shelf life and specific symptoms of
injury. Ethylene producers include apples, apricots, avocados, ripening
bananas, honeydew melons, papayas, peaches, pears, plums and tomatoes.

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 Storage

Advantages of storage
1. The wastage is avoided.
2. The stress during main season is relieved. It is easy to carry over the
produce from periods of high production to periods of low production.
3. Distress selling during glut is offset which ensures remunerative price to
the grower.
4. It assures regular supply to the consumer of high quality fresh fruit and
vegetables throughout the year at reasonable prices.
5. It is easy to supply and hold regular trade of vegetables from the place of
production to the place of consumption.

Check Your Progress Exercise 1 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Why storage of fruit and vegetables are required?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
2. What are the factors responsible for proper storage of fruits and
vegetables?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
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……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
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3. What are the sources of Infestation in storage?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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……………………………………………………………………………….
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Food Processing and ……………………………………………………………………………….
Engineering −
Introduction 4. What are various injury occur to fruit and vegetables during storage?
……………………………………………………………………………….
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……………………………………………………………………………….
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……………………………………………………………………………….

4.8 STORAGE PROCESS

Most rapidly maturing tropical fruits, soft fruits of all kinds, and leafy
vegetables with a large surface area tend to have high respiration rates and
normally have short storage lives. In contrast, most temperate fruits, cured
potatoes and onions, and vegetable root crops often have lower respiration
rates and consequently longer storage lives. Respiration of all produce
increases with temperature, which is why all storage techniques aim for a
reduction in temperature of the produce.
• Lower storage temperature offers the additional advantage of greatly
reduced water loss from the produce with reduced transpiration. High
relative humidity slows down water loss and enhances storage life of the
produce. Stores should ideally be maintained at the highest relative
humidity (RH) that the crop could tolerate.
It is important to retain adequate circulation of the air within a store and
around the produce to ensure efficient cooling. However, over-rapid air
movement can drastically increase water loss by the produce. Therefore, the
choice of the correct storage technique is governed by:
• the type of produce, its temperature from harvest and its respiration rate as
well as produce quality;
• the storage temperature and humidity best suited to the produce and
intended storage life, with implicating chill damage or unnecessary
microbial spoilage;
• appropriateness to the market place and its requirements;
• and above all, the economics of the whole operation.
The different types of storages are (i) ground or pit storage; (ii) natural caves
(iii) air-cooled storage; (iv) evaporative cooling (v) ventilated Storages
(vi) improved Zero-energy Cool Chamber (vii) refrigerated storages;
(viii) controlled atmosphere (CA), modified atmospheres (MA) or Hypo baric
storage.

4.9 TRADITIONAL STORAGE STRUCTURES

Ground storage or pit storage
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This method of storing vegetables is very commonly followed to the hills, Storage
especially in the snow-bound, arid dry template area, deep in the Himalayas. It
is always available, simple, cheap, easily made and effective method practiced
in some areas. The vegetables like potato, beetroot, carrot, radish, turnip, sweet
potato and cabbage are piled in layers in the pit or trenches dug at a higher,
well-drained place where water after snow melting does not accumulate. The
pits may be pucca or kuchcha and lined with straw or leaves, the produce is
then covered with straw followed by a thin layer of soil or prevents severe
freezing injury. However, the trenches/ pits are also covered with wooden
planks or tree branches and a small hole is kept for proper aeration at each
corner.
Cellers and caves
The cellers are sophisticated type of below ground storage. These can be part
of above ground buildings or underground rooms, where access is easy. The
caves are also the natural shelters available under big rocks, which are used for
storing vegetables. Good drainage, protection from rains or snowfall and
natural hazards are essential. The performance of cellers is improved by
providing controlled ventilation, openings for entrance of cold air and exit for
warm air by conventional circulation whenever cooling is required. Though
optimum temperatures generally cannot be retained. A good, cellar/cave will
provide satisfactory storage for hard vegetables.

4.10 IMPROVED STORAGE STRUCTURES

Air-cooled storage
These are simply insulated structures, above ground and partly underground,
which are cooled by circulation of colder monoxide air. When the temperature
of the produce is of desired level and the temperature of the outside air is
comparatively lower, air is circulated at the stock in the store mechanically
through bottom inlet vents and top dampers. Fans if fitted are controlled
manually or automatically. Air-cooled stores are cheap, easy to install and to
operate, which are still widely used for the storage of potato and sweet potato,
because both these products need relatively higher storage temperatures to
avoid accumulation of sugar and chilling injury, respectively. Potatoes are
commonly stored in bulk, piled in stores with air delivery even under the floor
or at floor level and with sufficiently spaced air outlets.
Evaporative cooling
This utilizes the evaporation of water using heat of respiration of the
vegetables. Water should be near or around the vegetables. Hot, dry air is thus
cooled when it flows through a wet surface. The temperature may be reduced
1°-5°C and relative humidity increases by 20-30 percent depending on the
prevailing temperature and relative humidity. The hotter and drier the
surrounding microclimate, the greater the decrease in temperature and higher
the increase in relative humidity. Evaporative cooling is very useful, especially
in vegetables which easily wilt, shrivel, or soften because of low relative
humidity. A few applications of evaporative cooling can be; (i) sprinkling fresh
vegetables with water; (ii) keeping fresh vegetables in moist containers
(earthen pots or jars); (iii) keeping vegetables inside drip coolers. There are
locally developed structures with sides which could absorb water to be

85
Food Processing and evaporated like jute sack or charcoal held on two sides by wire netting. Water
Engineering − is allowed to drip on the walls continuously
Introduction
Ventilated Storages
Before the advent of refrigeration, ventilated storage was the only means
available for storage of fresh produce and today is still in wide use all over the
world for a variety of crops. Ventilated storage is ambient air storage, which
makes use of controlled ventilation for cooling of the produce and maintenance
of lower temperatures. It requires much lower capital investment and operating
costs than refrigerated storage and is perfectly adequate for some crops and
conditions where:
• Production is being stored for local use.
• The crops to be stored have a relatively long natural and storage life.
• Regular inspection is possible to remove spoilage centers.
• There is a significant difference between day and night temperatures, for
example at altitudes above 1000 meters and most temperate latitudes.
• The need is for relatively short storage periods.
A ventilated store may be used for onions, garlic, yams and sweet potato.
However, ambient or ventilated storage for most other commodities is neither a
practical nor an economic proposition because spoilage rates are simply too
high. Some ventilated storage at the retail point may be an every day reality for
small shopkeepers but larger ships and supermarkets, and most importers and
wholesalers use refrigerated stores. Hanging onions and garlic are the simplest
form of ventilated storage. In low temperature areas, storage houses for
potatoes have air inlets at the sides near the floor level and outlets near the
ceiling. These storage houses are found ventilated. The entry and exit of fresh
air is mechanically controlled by thermostats, which also measure temperature
inside and outside the room. Air is allowed to enter when it is cold and to leave
when it is hot.
Improved Zero-energy Cool Chamber
A low cost zero-energy cool chamber, developed at IARI, New Delhi, recently
is based on the principle of evaporating cooling. Raw material readily available
is used for installing the short-term double-walled storage for fresh vegetables
and fruits. The inside temperature of the chamber maintained is between 17-
18°C (lower than outside) with relative humidity of about 90 percent during
the peak summer months and also throughout the year. Such chambers are
quite suitable for storage of fresh vegetables for short duration. Moreover,
these are cheap, economical and within the reach of an average vegetable
grower.

4.11 MODERN STORAGE STRUCTURES

Refrigerated Storage
Refrigerated storage is a well-established technology widely used for storing
horticultural crops all over the world and is undoubtly the most effective
method of prolonging the storage shelf life of fresh vegetables and reduces
post-harvest losses by arresting metabolic breakdown of fungal deterioration of
86
the commodity. Its application is limited only by cost and benefit Storage
considerations. Essentially, all crops can benefit by being stored at a suitable
low temperature, which extends the storage life and preserves quality.
Many horticultural crops have storage life spans ranging from less than one
month to several months when refrigerated. Therefore, refrigerated storage can
be used continuously only if different crops with different harvesting seasons
can share the facility. There are other important reasons why this method is not
used in many tropical and sub-tropical countries, where refrigeration is needed
most. The initial investment cost is too high and its energy consumption too
large for many countries
When this method is to be used on a large-scale, the total value of the
commodity should be considered. It may keep the commodity fresh for a long
period but if it is not profitable to put in refrigerated store or even to rent a
refrigerated room, then it is economical to use other methods of storage. Many
tropical and subtropical fruit and vegetables are susceptible to low temperature
injury. Due to the lack of money to erect and run cold storages by the
individual farmer or farming community, the use of cold storages is limited.
However, some well-to-do farmers and government agencies have created
these facilities and are making use of them for storing high-priced vegetables.
As the commodities have their optimum temperature and relative humidity at
which they keep fresh for the longest possible time, therefore the cold room
should have the desired temperature and relative humidity
The commodities should be cooled as soon as possible. Root and bulb
vegetables should be properly cured before storing for better protection from
micro-organisms. For better results, avoid mixing different commodities
because most of the fruit & vegetables release ethylene on their ripening, thus
leafy vegetables root and bulb vegetables and green fruit vegetables should not
be mixed. Only good quality produce should be stored in different chambers.
Storing of poor quality produce may not be economical in the long run. The
faster the temperature of the vegetable is lowered down to the optimum, the
longer is the shelf life of the commodity. Cooling vegetables and fruits
immediately after harvesting before storage at the optimum temperature is an
effective way to remove both field and product heat leading to slow
deterioration. The fast cooling is called pre-cooling and is done by cooling in
special pre-cooling chambers or equipment with air (room cooling)- with a
much higher capacity to cool than a usual cold room. In lead water (hydro
cooler), the vegetable is sprayed or immersed in ice water, here the cooling
time is determined by the temperature difference between the water and the
vegetable, the nature of the vegetable and type of container used.

4.12 CONTROLLED ATMOSPHERE (CA) AND

MODIFIED ATMOSPHERE (MA) OR HYPERBOLIC
STORAGE
The fresh horticultural produce consumes oxygen for respiration and releases
carbon dioxide and ethylene. The ethylene further enhances ripening. Reducing
oxygen and increasing carbon dioxide can increase the shelf life. In CA storage
the levels of CO2, O2 and N2 in the storage room are monitored. CA storage
combined with refrigeration reduces respiration and delays yellowing and
quality changes. However the tolerance of individual varieties of horticultural
crops needs to be considered.
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Food Processing and Commercial application of CA storage is limited to only a few crops, apples
Engineering − and pears being the most popular ones. It is not used for other crops because
Introduction
the benefit is too slight to cover the cost. The technologies involved are
complicated and sophisticated. The cost of building, facilities, and
management for CA storage is considerably higher than for refrigerated
storage. Therefore it should not be recommended for any crop without a
thorough cost and benefit analysis.
While in modified atmosphere (MA), the respiration of the commodity is
allowed to reach a desirable low level of O2 and high level of CO2 inside a
closed chamber, container, plastic bag or plastic tent and the gases are
maintained at those levels. Both the systems are best used with refrigerated
storage involving manipulation of CO2, O2 and N2. Other gases such as
ethylene, acetylene and propylene are also considered. MA differs from CA
only in how precisely the addition of pressures is modified. CA storage is more
precise than MA storage without basis or reducing the atmospheric gaseous
pressure exerted on the stored valuable vegetables. The CA is seldom used
commercially for vegetables, whereas the use of plastic bags to line containers
or as retain packages is an example of modified atmosphere. For prevention of
accumulation of too much CO2 and decrease of too much O2, a few holes can
be made.
Danish cabbage has been reported to be kept better during four to five months
at 0˚C in gas mixtures with 2.5 to 5% oxygen and carbon dioxide than it has in
air. Mature green tomatoes may keep green for five to six weeks at 13˚C in an
atmosphere at 3% oxygen with 97% nitrogen. After removal to air at 18˚ C,
these tomatoes ripened normally with acceptable flavour. Mushroom in
refrigerated storage has been kept better for short periods in atmosphere with 5
to 10% carbon dioxide than air.
All types of controlled atmosphere storage require frequent gas analysis to
determine when aeration is required to add oxygen or to remove carbon
dioxide
Therefore, the fresh fruit and vegetables storage can help in bringing lucrative
returns to the vegetable growers and others dealing with the vegetable, trade,
and supplying fresh, full of flavour, aroma and attractive vegetables from the
different areas, in original state to the consumers. Thus, there is great
potentiality of storing vegetables and fruits for both fresh and in processed
form.

# Check Your Progress Exercise 2

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What is various storage structure required in traditional storage system?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
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 ………………………………………………………………………………. Storage

2. What is various storage structure required in improved storage system?

……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

4.13 LOSSES IN STORAGE

Fruits, vegetables, root crops, ornamentals collectively called horticulture
products are inherently perishable. Losses occur in the period between
harvesting and consumption. The loss is generally a result of multiple causes
and malpractices along the marketing chain.
About 20% of the damage to produce takes place during harvesting and field
handling. The grower should ensure that the produce is harvested well, is kept
in good condition till it is treated, kept in safe storage, consumed or sold.
If post harvest treatments are being used, they should start immediately after
the produce has been harvested, to ensure that the essential freshness and
nutritional values are maintained to the maximum.
Losses during post harvest operations due to improper storage and handling are
enormous and can range from 10-40 percent. Post harvest losses can occur in
the field, in packing areas, in storage, during transportation and in the
wholesale and retail market. Severe losses occur because of poor facilities, lack
of know-how, poor management, market dysfunction or simply the
carelessness of farmers. Proper storage conditions, temperature and humidity
are needed to lengthen the storage life and maintain quality once the crop has
been cooled to the optimum storage temperature.

4.14 INDIAN STANDARDS

Various Indian standard are notified by Bureau of Indian Standards, New
Delhi, these are given below.
Indian Standards on Storage and Marketing Structures for Agricultural
Commodities
IS:
600-1955 Code of practice for construction of BUKHARI type
rural food grain storage structure.
601-1955 Code of practice for construction of KOTHARI type
food grain storage structure.

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Food Processing and 602-1955 Code of practice for construction for MORAI type rural
Engineering − food grain storage structure.
Introduction
603-1960 Code of practice for construction of underground rural
food grain storage structure.
607-1965 Code of practice for construction of bagged food grain
storage structures suitable for trade and government
purposes (revised).
609-1955 Code of practice for improvement of existing structures
used oriented to be used for food grain storage.
631-1961 Aluminium food grain storage bins.
1497-1959 Layout for regulated market yards for agricultural
commodities.
1787-1961 Layout for regulated market yards for fruits and
vegetables.
1788-1961 Layout for regulated market yards for cattle.
2059-1962 Layout for regulated market yards for tobacco.
2821-1964 Thermo-sampler.
3453-1966 Code of practice for construction of hexagonal type
concrete-cum-masonary bins for bulk storage of food
grains.
5503(PartI)-1969 General requirements for silos for grain storage: Part I
Constructional requirements.
5503(PartII)-1969 General requirements for silos for grain storage: Part II
Grain handling equipment and accessories.
5606-1970 Steel bins for grain storage.
5826-1970 Constructional requirements for flat storage structures
for grain (capacity above 200 tonnes).
6151 (Part I)-1971 Storage management code: Part I Terminology.
6151 (Part II)-1971 Storage management code: Part II General care in
handling and storage of agricultural produce and inputs
(superseding IS: 610-1955 and IS: 611-1955).
6201-1971 Constructional requirements for flat storage structures
for grains (100-200 tonnes capacity).
6663-1972 Method for determination of angle of repose of grains.
Indian Standards on Storage Structures and Storage Management
IS:
607-1971 Code of practice for construction of bagged storage
structures (second revision).

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3453-1966 Code of practice for construction of hexagonal type Storage
concrete-cum-masonry bins bulk storage of food
grains.
3503(Part I)-1969 General requirements for silos for grain storage: Part I
Constructional requirements.
3503 (Part II)-1969 General requirements for silos for grain storage: Part II
Grain handling equipment and accessories.
5606-1970 Steel bins for grain storage.
5826-1970 Constructional requirements for flat storage structures
for grain (capacity above 200 tonnes).
6151 (Part I)-1971 Storage management code: Part I Terminology.
6151 (Part II)-1971 Storage management code: Part II General care in
handling and storage of agricultural produce and
inputs.
6151 (Part III)-1976 Storage management code: Part III Specific care in
handling and storage of agriculture produce and inputs.
6201-1971 Constructional requirements for flat storage structures
for grains (100 to 200 tonnes capacity).
6883-1972 Method for determination of angle of repose of grains.
7147 (Part I)-1973 Steel bins for domestic storage: Part I GHARELU
KOTHI.
7247 Code of practice for fumigation of agricultural produce
7247 (Part I)-1973 Methyl bromide.
7247 (Part II)-1973 Ethylene dibromide.
7247 (Part III)-1973 Aluminium phosphate.
7247 (Part IV)-1975 Ethylene dichloride and carbon tetrachloride mixture.
7715-1975 Methods for testing suitability of bins for safe storage
of food grains.
7716-1975 Method for testing efficacy of fumigation for
disinfestations of grains in domestic bins.
8455-1977 Code of practice for construction of polyethylene
embedded bins for bulk storage of food grains.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3 "

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
1. What are reason for post harvest losses of fruit and vegetables?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
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Food Processing and ……………………………………………………………………………….
Engineering −
Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………….
2. What percentage of losses takes places during storage?
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………….

4.15 LET US SUM UP

Storage of fresh fruits and vegetables produced is an important economic
aspect as it tends to stabilize prices to make use of higher production period to
low production period, to avoid glut in the market, to make fruits and
vegetables available in off season to earn better return. Due to improper
storage, infestation takes place in the produce. Proper storage conditions
should be maintained during storage. Various parameters such as relative
humidity, temperature, etc. are important during storage. Storage can be made
in various types of storage structures depending upon capacity and resources
available. Important storage methods are Ground storage or pit storage,
evaporating cooling, Ventilatated storage, Refrigerated storage, controlled and
modified storage.

4.16 KEY WORDS

Temperature : It is the temperature of surroundings of fruits and
vegetables stored.

Infestation : It refers to attack of insects and pests on stored product.

Refrigerated
storage : In this condition storage temperature ranges from −1C
to 10 C. Storage below –1 C is termed as freezer
storage.

Airtight storage : Airtight storage refers to storage conditions in which

air is minimum (.2% by volume) leading to arrest the
insect infestation in dry grains.

# 4.17 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1
1. Your answer should include the following points:
• Need for storage,
• Storage conditions for optimum condition,
• Suitable storage condition for various fruit and vegetables.

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 Storage

2. Your answer should include the following points:

• various factors,
• relative humidity,
• temperature,
• moisture content.

3. Your answer should include the following points:

Various types of infestation takes places in storage, it include direct

damages and indirect damages, all type of sources for infestation should be
noted.

4. Your answer should include the following points:

Various types of injury like freezing and chilling injury should be

mentioned

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. Your answer should include the following points:

• Ground storage or pit storage,

• Cellers and caves.

2. Your answer should include the following points:

• Air-cooled storage,
• Evaporating cooling,
• Ventilated storage,
• Improved Zero-energy cool chamber.

Check Your Progress Exercise 3

1. Your answer should include the following points:

Reasons for post harvest losses and factor effecting losses.

2. Your answer should include the following points:

Percentage of losses taken place during post harvest operations.

4.18 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

1. Srivastava, S.S. (2000) Horticulture Science, Central Book House, Raipur.
2. Sahay, K.M. and Singh, K.K. (1991) Unit Operations of Agricultural
Processing, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
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Food Processing and 3. Arya, Prem Singh (1997) Vegetable Growing In India, MP Publication Pvt.
Engineering − Ltd.
Introduction
4. Yadav, P.K. and Singh, Jitendra (2000) Fruit Production and Preservation,
Agrobios (India) Jodhpur.
5. Michel, A.M. and Ojha, T.P. (1966) Principle of Agricultural Engineering,
Jain Publications, New Delhi.
6. Hardenburg, R.E., Watada, A.E. and Wang, C.Y. (1986) The Commercial
Storage of Fruits, Vegetables, and Florist and Nursery Stocks. U.S.
Dept. of Agriculture, Agricultural Handbook No. 66. pp. 130.
7. Kader, A.A. (ed.) (1992) Postharvest Technology of Horticultural Crops.
University of California, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Oakland, California, USA, pp. 296.
8. Janet Bachmann and Richard Earles, NCAT Agriculture Specialists August
2000 Postharvest Handling of Fruit & Vegetables By ATTRA Ozark
Mountains at the University of Arkansas in Fayetteville at P.O. Box 3657,
Fayetteville, AR 72702.
9. Fu Wen Liu Horticultural Crops Abstract Department of Horticulture,
National Taiwan University.

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