Questions Section A

Section A 1a) What is philosophy and in what sense we all are

1. a) What is philosophy and in what sense we all are philosophers?
philosophers?
b) Discuss different factors related to the origin of Philosophy:
philosophy / do you think that philosophers are The term ‘Philosophy’ literally means ‘love of wisdom’
indifferent. (from the ancient Greek phílos:
2. a) In what sense both science and philosophy are "love"; and sophía: "wisdom").
anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric?***( answer
needed)
b) Discuss ethics anthropology and philosophy of  Philosophy may roughly be defined as a critical
religion as scope of philosophy study of real nature and meaning of the
3. a) What is knowledge and what are the different universe along with that of our own being by a
sources of knowledge? right application of our faculty or faculties
b) Discuss rationalism as a source of knowledge. of knowledge.
4. a) What is empiricism, what are the fundamental  Plato- “Philosophy aims at the knowledge of
principles of classical empiricism? the eternal, of the essential nature of
b) What is innate idea, how does John Locke reveal things.”
innate ideas?  Paulsen- “Philosophy is the sum-total of all
scientific knowledge.”
Section B  Philosophy is the way of thinking about certain
5. a) Is there any relation between body and mind? subjects such as ethics, thought,
b) Discuss different theories regarding different existence, time, meaning, and value. The way
theories of body and mind of thinking involves 4R’sResponsiveness,
6. a) What is profession? How is it different from Reflection, Reason, and Re-evaluation.
occupation? Why are professionals considered as the
elite people of the society? In what sense we are all philosophers-
b) Discuss different characteristics of profession It may be rightly observed that in a sense we, human
7. a) Show the distinction between formal truth and beings, are all philosophers; This paradox will become
material truth clear as soon as we realize the nature of the
b) Discuss different theories of truth (***direct answer Philosophical inquiry and consider the problems it
needed) deals with.
8. a) What is environmental philosophy? Show the  Every normal man has-some notion or other
distinction between anthropocentrism and non- about the world, about his own self, about life
anthropocentrism and its origin and goal. And every thinking
b) What are the arguments in favor of the man is rather instinctively interested in
anthropocentric domination of our nature - Do you agree questions about them and looks about for
with them? Justify your position. / Superiority doesn't their answers.
imply domination rather leads to responsibility.  Now, these are some of the questions of
philosophy itself. Philosophy springs from a
curiosity about the secrets of nature and life,
and seeks earnestly to unveil them. Hence, in
a way, we are all philosophers.

1b) Discuss different factors related to the origin of

philosophy / do you think that philosophers are
indifferent.

Origin of philosophy
The question of the origin of philosophy is a question as
to why man first began (or ever begins) to
philosophize. There is more than one reason for
philosophical thinking, which may be briefly explained as
follows. (Wonder+Adjustment+Doubt+Other views=
WADO)

1. Wonder:
 As an intelligent being, man has a native
tendency to feel curious about what is
unknown or unexplained.
 Every mystery, in normal conditions, arrests
our attention and rouses our emotion of
 wonder. We feel a sort of discomfort until the withdrawal of belief or suspension of
mystery is uncovered. judgment, and in its extreme form, it may
extend even to the infallibility of our sense
 The primitive man, in that state of little and reason.
intellectual advancement, found the
environment miserably unfamiliar. 4. Deficiencies of other world-views:
 Curiosity led him on to a progressive study of  An incentive to philosophical thinking comes
nature, to remove the curtain of ignorance also from deficiencies in the world-views
between him and the marvelous variety of developed in common sense, or in science or
phenomena: the floating clouds of the sky, the religion.
twinkling stars in the heavens, the birth, growth,  Common sense views are uncritical and
and death of numberless kinds of beings. superficial.
 Gradually his curiosity took the shape of  Sciences are critical and penetrative, but they
definite questions like those of philosophy. take piecemeal and relatively unconnected
Thus, philosophy began its journey. views of the different aspects of the world so
that unification of
2. The need of adjustment: their views remains to be done.
 But, probably always, man's pursuit of  Moreover, there are certain important problems
knowledge has some direct or indirect in which no science is interested, e.g.. the
relation to his biological needs. problem of value. Religion is interested in such
 Man lives in a dual environment of physical and problems and also tries to give a synthetic
social forces. view of things. But its method is
 Life means an appropriate adjustment to this unsatisfactory, or at least not acceptable to an
environment, which is not possible inquisitive, critical mind.
without adequate knowledge of the same.  Hence philosophy is required to fill up this
 This adjustment is not only physical but also gap between common sense, science and
social and psychological. Along with religion."
exploiting the forces of nature, it is also
necessary to harmonize oneself to social 1c) Do you think that philosophers are indifferent.
conditions.  The word 'philosophy’ is familiar to many, and
 Moreover, in a state of ignorance, life seems to philosophy as a subject has indeed a long
have no meaning and no goal, which is not history. Nevertheless, misconceptions about
only a source of discomfort but an obstacle in philosophy are only too common.
the way of progress.  To many, philosophy appears to be nothing
 Hence man's inner urge to live happily and better than unbridled but futile flights of the
significantly has led him to think about the imagination. A philosopher is looked upon as a
nature of life and the world. most unpractical sort of stargazer
 And if this is true of the past, it is far more so of who mistakes his mosquito curtain for his
the present. We seem to be in a state of chaos wrapper. He is a veritable poser who asks
and confusion in all aspects of our life, and puzzling questions that neither he nor
order and harmony can be brought about only anybody else can possibly answer. Philosophy
through a dispassionate study of the is a barren pursuit having no relation to
situation and unbiased thinking, which is science, nor any value in our work-a-day life.
philosophy. In our times, pragmatists, in And, above all, it’s very secret design is to
particular, look at philosophy from this undermine traditions and demolish our faith
biological standpoint. in God.
 But a reading of philosophy is sure to prove to
3. Doubt: the reader that all these are
 Philosophical speculation may spring from a sheer misconceptions, resulting from utter
state of doubt when the mind is already ignorance or shallow ideas about the subject.
occupied with ideas acquired either from  In fact, philosophy is neither unpractical nor
wonder or from the need for adjustment. useless. It has intimate relations both to
 Doubt presupposes a state of knowledge. We science and life. It is something that every
may take to philosophical activity when we find thinking man has in some form or other and
the current ideas unsatisfactory and begin to cannot do without.
doubt their validity.
 The growth of a new philosophical doctrine is
generally traceable to dissatisfaction with the
existing ones.
2a) In what sense both science and philosophy are
 This characterizes the history of Eastern and anthropocentric and non-anthropocentric?
Western philosophy alike. Doubt means
 Climate change has been shown to be caused by  "Ethics", says Mackenzie. "Maybe defined as
humans. Human centric behaviors have affected the the study of what is right or good
world to the extent that may believe we have entere a in conduct."
new geologic epoch. This epoch – the Anthropocene  It is also called "moral philosophy. i.e.,
has prompted explortaiton in to the ethical system of "philosophical thinking about morality,
values has lead ecological epoch. We that a purely moral problems, and moral judgments."
anrtopocentric ethical sustem of values has lead  More precisely, ethics is an inquiry concerning
exological imbalance and environmental destruction and the goodness or badness or rightness or
that a non anthrocpocentric ethical system of value wrongness of the conduct of human beings
exists for maintaining and regaining a habitable living in a society. It asks about the meaning of
environment. However m past conception of non 'good' or 'right' and elucidates the notions of
anthropocentric have relied on abstract conception of duty, obligation, and virtue.
values that fail to create a usefuland practical ethical  Its chief object is to define the ultimate
system. standard of moral action to formulate rules by
which we are to judge which actions are right, or
A look into views of indigenous cultures procises which conduct or character is virtuous.
another conception of non anthropocentric grounded in  Ethics has traditionally been called a normative
the corncept of relational values. Relational values science, but of late a distinction has
emerge out of indigenous systems of knowledge , which been made between 'normative ethics' and
are grounded in and supported by indigenous origin 'metaethics’.
stories and cosmologies. These systems of knowledge  Whereas normative ethics investigates the
are the product of thorusans of years of observing the problem of the criterion of moral action,
functioning of the natural world. And the efficacy and the metaethics is a semantical and logical inquiry
efficacy and practically of the dericed values to great concerning the meanings of moral terms and
success. In order to intergrate such values into the the forms and standards of moral reasoning
mainstream we must overcome the insitionilzed of the moral law, and all other relevant
historical biases designed to oppress and diminish considerations.
indigenous cultures and values. This can be done by
land based educational approach to learning. Anthropology or the Philosophy of Man:

Anthropocentrism upholds the approach that manking is  As already indicated, although the study of the
the centric part of nature, and in a system of value world includes the study of man, yet
human existence should be sustained above any other man deserves special consideration.
environmental or natural entitiy, The privilege falls to  Anthropology is the philosophical (not
humanity issues in decision-making regarding usage physiological or historical, for example) study of
and sustainability of the non-human world. The man and is more appropriately called
philosophy argues, since human beings are the only "Philosophical Anthropology”.
creature with development reationalism, the species is  Its inquiries about the essence, origin, value
morally valueable therefor should be protected at all and significance of man's being and also about
costs .There is a range of adherence to the theory, with his position in the scheme of things. It asks
strong and weak anthropocentrism gives humans no whether a man is a combination of body and
duty or regard for the natural world, weak soul: and if so, how these two are related.
anthropocentrism understands that the environment play  What is meant by the immortality of the soul?
a role in the survival of the future generations and How far is
therefor must be protected and sustained to some effect. immortality a fact? Is man free or determined?
And so on. Many of these problems
Non anthropocentrism is eesentially and reversal of are now brought under a very important branch
anthropocentrism stating that non human world has of philosophy called 'the Philosophy
value independent of its benefit to humanity. It is of Mind'.
ecocentric, placing the intristic value away from
humanity tot the natural world. Every species contributes
oththe health of ecosystem in some way. Therefor
benefits and consequesces will have an effect. An
environmental ethic is essentially anthropological as Philosophy of Religion:
humanity ultimately determines instrinctic values. As a
result, policy makers and scientists.  This branch of philosophy inquiries about
2b) Discuss ethics, anthropology and philosophy of religious phenomena in general, and the
religion as scope of philosophy nature and existence of God in particular.
 It studies and evaluates the nature of
Ethics: religion, religious attitudes and ideas,
revelation and religious experience, and
 finally, the various proofs for the existence of  Never to accept anything as true unless I
the Divine Being. already know it as such.
 "Philosophy of religion,” says Brightman, "is an  Divide each of difficulties, under
attempt to discover by rational interpretation examination into as many parts as possible.
of religion and its relations to other types of  Commence with a simplest object and
experience, the truth of religious ascend, step by step to a more complex.
belief and the value of religious attitudes and  In every case make the enumeration so
practices." complete that I might be assured that
 It also inquiries about the place of religion in nothing was omitted.
man's life and the future of religion vis-a-vis Method of Doubt:
the ongoing advancement of natural sciences.  Ideas: According to Descartes ideas are of
three types: Adventitious, Fictitious and
innate.
3a) What is knowledge and what are the different  Adventitious Idea: Adventitious ideas are
sources of knowledge? the ideas of the external objects obtained
The etymological sense of philosophy implies that from perception. They are indistinct and
philosophers are highly concerned with epistemological confused and therefore doubtful. Those
problems. ideas vary from person to person as they
We are endowed with certain faculties of knowledge. depend upon the perception of individuals.
 Sense------ color, taste, smell  Factitious Ideas: Fictitious ideas are
 Reason----- geometrical figures and nothing but the creation of our imagination
mathematics and obviously they are false. They don’t
 Intuition----------- aesthetics have any concrete existence. Mermaid,
 Religious truths------specifically competent golden mountain, flying horse, unicorn are
minds and holy scriptures. the examples of fictitious ideas.
According to R.M Chisholm, knowledge is justified  Innate Ideas: Avoiding both adventitious
true belief supported by adequate evidences. and fictitious ideas he accepts innate ideas
For example, S knows that h (e.g. that the earth is such as God, truth, perfect being, causality,
round) means infinity etc. They are innate in the sense that
 S accepts H we are clearly conscious of them at birth.
 S has adequate evidences for H, and Their innate characters are evidenced by
 H is true the fact that they cannot be derived from
experience, but rather constitute the basis of
Sources of knowledge: Authoritarianism, Rationalism, our experience. Descartes’ proof for the
Empiricism, Criticism or Critical Theory, Intuitionism and existence of God is an instance of the
Mysticism. rationalistic procedure.

3b) Discuss rationalism as a source of knowledge. 4a) What is empiricism, what are the fundamental
principles of classical empiricism?
Rationalism:
 Rationalism as a theory of knowledge maintains Empiricism:
that reason is the only source of certain  Empiricism is a revolt against rationalism.
knowledge. Reason is simply our faculty of Empiricism is that epistemological position
correct thinking which works in collaboration according to which the ultimate source of
with or independently of senses. knowledge is experience.
 Advocates of rationalism from different  The empiricist argues that rationalists’ belief in
periods: innate ideas is mistaken. Reasoning may tell us
 Ancient period: Eleatics. Socrates, Plato, what follows from ‘X exists’ and thus extend our
Aristotle. knowledge. But reason cannot tell us whether ‘X
 Modern period: Descartes, Leibniz, Spinoza, exists or not’.
Wolf, Hegel,Bradley and Bosanquet  Carvaka(Indian Philosophy), Sophists(Ancient
 Contemporary period: Robert Brandom. Greece),Francis Bacon, Locke, Berkeley, Hume,
 Descartes (1596-1650), French philosopher John Stuart Mill(1806-1873) (Modern period),
and mathematician. Discourse on Method and Logical positivism and pragmatism from
Meditations. contemporary period.
Rules followed by Descartes as self-guidance for Fundamentals of classical empiricism:
his philosophical inquiry:  Mind at birth is a clean slate or tabula rasa. All
He wanted to establish knowledge which is clear, the characters of knowledge are acquired
distinct, certain, indubitable, beyond reasonable through sense experience”.
doubt like mathematics.  Sensation and reflection, the outer and inner
sense-experience, are the only two windows
 through which the dark chamber of mind comes datum of knowledge. Simple ideas enter into the mind
to be filled with light. one by one. For example, we get the ideas of color,
 The elements of experience, for example, the smell, taste, touch of the apple one by one.
sensation of light and heat, color and smell etc.,
are all simple and unrelated. In forming ideas, the operation of mind is essential.
 Of course, knowledge can never be exhausted Once we have got the simple ideas through sensation
by particulars supplied by senses. and reflection, we can compound them in infinite number
 We find that judging, relating, subtracting, of ways to get complex ideas. Compounding is that
compounding, comparing and combining the operation of the mind upon its ideas by which it “puts
discrete items of sense impressions is the together several of those simple ones it has received
special function of intellect. Without these from sensation and reflection and combines them into
functions there can be no knowledge proper. complex ones.”

Primary quality and secondary quality: We do not know

4b) What is innate idea, how does John Locke reveal the objects directly. We know them through primary
innate ideas? (solidity, extension, figure, motion and number) and
(**Unorganized**) secondary (color, sound taste, smell) qualities. Qualities
An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, John represent objects i.e., representative realism.
Locke (1632-1704)

Negative and positive aspect of Locke’s position:

Negatively, Locke tries to refute the Cartesian doctrine
of innate ideas; and positively, he tried to establish his
own view that all ideas are empirical. Section B
Refutation of innate idea: (a) If there are innate ideas, 5a) Is there any relation between body and mind?
they must be equally present in all minds. Children, There is a correspondence between mental process and
savages, idiots and illiterate persons are quite unaware physiological process. There is correspondence
of the so called innate ideas. They are not conscious of between mental process and volition and physiological
the idea of causality, infinity, eternity, God and the like. process and muscular movements. The questions arise:
To suppose that innate ideas exist in their minds of  How can we explain this correspondence?
which they are not is self-contradictory.  Are body and mind essentially identical or different
(b) If there are innate ideas in the mind, they must be in nature?
the same in all minds. For instance, God.  Are they made of the same stuff or the same reality
(c) Even if there were the same idea in all minds, it viewed from different standards?
would not prove their innateness. All persons have the  If they are different entities of different aspects or
same idea of fire. But it is not an innate idea; it is derived attributes of the same reality, how exactly are they
by all from experience. Universality of an idea does not related?
prove its innateness.  Do they exist independently, or affect each other?
(d) The so-called innate principles are general truths  If they affect each other, how is that possible?
which are inductions from particular facts of experience.
All generalizations are acquired from perceptions. The 5b) Discuss different theories regarding different
child knows that sweet is sweet and not bitter from theories of body and mind
which the law if identity and law of contradiction are 1. Interactionism
formed. 2. Psychological Parallelism
Locke maintains that the mind at birth is like a tabula 3. Occasionalism
rasa, clean slate, blank paper on which experience 4. Pre-established Harmony
gradually writes its impressions. Experience is two-fold: 5. Epiphenomenalism
sensation and reflection. By sensation we perceive the 6. Physicalism
external objects through our sense organs: by reflection
we perceive our internal states. Sensation is prior to
Interactionism:
reflection. We reflect only when our mind is stocked with
sensation. “There is nothing in the intellect which was  This theory was introduced by Rene Descartes.
not previously in the senses. According to this theory, mind and body are
independent separate entities. They are
heterogeneous substances. Mind is unextended
Simple and complex idea: while body or matter is extended. Mind is
Locke lived in an age of composition theory according to conscious which has thinking felling and willing.
which a complex whole is only a sum-total of simple Body and matter are subject to mechanical law-
parts. A simple idea is one which is uncompounded, while mind is subject to purpose and teleology.
contains in its nothing but one uniform appearance or Body and mind and have nothing in common.
conception in the mind and is not distinguishable into This theory believes that with death body will die
different ideas. Simple idea is an unanalyzable simple but mind will survive. Religion belongs to the
 same platform. Descartes holds that, body and inorganic matter. It is found in a living
mind interact upon each other by the help of organism and endowed with a nervous
pineal gland situated in the brain. Hungry and system.
thirsty, emotions and passions, felling of pains
or pleasure and sensation of such qualities such Occasionalism:
as color taste and smell are the results of the  Geulincx and Malebranche are the advocates of
intimate union between body and mind. This this theory. According to this theory, mind and
interaction takes place horizontally, vertically body is not causal, rather this relationship is
and cross sectionally. based on the will of God. This theory asserts
 Criticism: that mind and body are opposed to each other
o Mind or non-physical substances cannot and consequently cannot interact upon each
be known scientifically. other; but still there is a correspondence
o Reply: Mind can be known through between the two; and this correspondence is
introspection. Mind can be known from brought about by God, who upon the occasion
cause- effect relationship. Physical of certain changes in the one intervenes to bring
activities are caused by mental wish or about corresponding changes in the other.
expectation. Science accepts the Whenever changes arise in the body, God
principle of causality. intervenes and produces corresponding
o There cannot be anything like mind from sensation in the mind and vice- versa. It takes
the point of view of evolution. Life occasionally, not all the time.
evolved from soil and water- material  Criticism:
substances. o Intervention of God takes place which is
o Reply: In recent years, it has been not accepted by the atheists.
defended by biologists Hans Driesch,
psychologist William McDougall and Pre-established Harmony:
philosopher W.H Sheldon.  Leibniz is the introducer of this view. According
Psychological Parallelism: to this theory, God at the time of creation
 According to parallelism, body and mind do not established such a harmony between mind and
interact, either independently or through divine body-pre adjusted them to each other in such a
intervention. They simply correspond to each way that they always correspond to each other
other. They are like two parallel straight lines without calling for his constant intervention as
which run along but never touch each other. occasionalism supposes. Body and mind may
Leibniz and Spinoza were the introducers of this be regarded as two clocks which once
theory. constructed and set to the same time go on
 To avoid the difficulties of dualism and keeping the same time without either of them
interactionism, Spinoza started the hypothesis of acting upon the other.
universal parallelism, according to which mind  Criticism: Use of God.
and matter are not two distinct and independent
substances, but only two parallel attributes of Epiphenomenalism.
the same substances, God. Mind and matter are  Thomas Huxley (1825-1895) is the introducer of
the correlative aspects, internal and external, of this theory. This theory is based on the cause-
one and the same substance, God which in itself effect relationship. Body is considered as the
neither mind nor matter, but appears in its two cause; mind is considered is the effect of the
parallel attributes of thought and extension. cause. This is one-way relationship; body
Hence, for every unit of extension in the conditions lead to mental conditions, and not
universe there is a corresponding unit of vice- versa. Body is considered primary in this
consciousness and vice-versa. For every view and mind is considered as secondary;
change in the body, there is a corresponding mental conditions are secondary by-products of
change in the mind and for every change in the primary body conditions.
mind, there is corresponding change in the
body. There is a thorough–going Physicalism:
correspondence between thought and  Physicalism is monistic in type and as such
extension, mind and body, mental processes rejects the duality of mind and body. It gives
and physiological processes. physical descriptions of mental events and does
 Criticism: not accept mental events as separate and
o Spiroza holds that whenever there is independent. Physicalism is not
thought there is extension. But this is neuropsychological and it does not give
not confirmed by the scientific evidence. attention to brain states, which match thought
Consciousness is found in highly process.
organized nervous system, but it is not
found in stones. It is not found in
Physicalism  In general, the profession is regulated by a
 (1) Type Identity Theory: According to this particular or professional body statute while
theory, mental and physical events are of two an occupation is not.
types of the same thing and so they are  A person doing occupation get paid for what
identical. For example, water and H20 are the he produces, whereas a profession gets
expressions of two types, but they mean the paid according to his knowledge and
same thing. In this way, what is considered to be expertise.
mental can be considered as identical with  The profession is also an occupation when
physical states. Thus, thought process is the person is paid for utilizing his skills and
identical what is considered as physical brain. expertise.
 A professional is independent, i.e. his work
 (2) Behaviorism: Behaviorism denies that mind is not influenced by any external force.
and body are two types of the same thing. Conversely, there is a lack of independence
Instead behaviorism totally denies the existence in the profession because the person
of mind. What is usually considered to be performing the occupation has to follow the
mental, e.g. thoughts, feelings, pain, desires all commands of his supervisors.
such matters are expressed through behavior.  There are some responsibilities which are
Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976), a famous behaviorist associated with the profession. However, an
said that mind is like a ghost in a machine. A occupation is not backed with such
machine can run without something like a responsibilities.
thoughtful mind. Similarly, a body can run  The basic pay in the profession is normally
without a mind. Mind is like a ghost in the sense higher than in occupation.
that there is nothing as mind.  The professionals are respected by people
and have a high status in the society as
compared to the occupation.

Core Qualities of Professionals:

 Integrity: Openness and honesty, both with
themselves and with others.
6a) What is profession? How is it different from  Independence: T be free of secondary interests
occupation? Why are professionals considered as with other parties.
the elite people of the society?  Impartiality: To be free of bias and unbalanced
interests.
 Responsibility: The recognition and
Definition: Profession refers to a free act of acceptance of personal commitment.
commitment to a way of life. Profession means the  Competence: Thorough knowledge of the work
occupation in which one professes to be skilled in and to they undertake to do.
follow. Profession is a vocation in which professed  Discretion:
knowledge of some branch of learning is used in its o Care with communication and
application to the affairs of others. trustworthiness
The ethical identity, codes and practices of particular o Because of these qualities they are
professions, such as the professions followed by considered elite people of the society.
accountants, lawyers, teachers, doctors, engineers and
the like. 6b) Discuss different characteristics of profession
Characteristics of Profession:
Differences from occupation:
The major differences between occupation and Extensive period of training of an intellectual
profession are discussed as under: character, usually obtained at a college or
 An activity performed by a person normally university:
for monetary compensation is known as the  Entrance into a profession typically requires an
Occupation. Profession refers to vocation, in extensive period of training, and this training is
which high degree of education or skills is of an intellectual character. Many occupations
required. require an extensive apprenticeship and
 Unlike occupation, the profession has a training, and they often require practical skills,
code of conduct. but the training typically required of
 Occupation does not require any sort of professionals focuses more on intellectual
training in a particular field, but the content than practical skills. Professional’s
profession requires specialization in a knowledge and skills are grounded in a body of
specific area, and that is why training is a theory. This theoretical base is obtained through
must. formal education, usually in an academic
institution. Today, most professionals have at
 least a bachelor’s degree from a college or true of professionals in private practice.
university, and many professions require more Professionals who work in large organizations
advanced degrees, which are often conferred by may also exercise a large degree of individual
a professional school. Thus, the professions are judgment and creativity in carrying out their
usually closely allied in our society w h professional responsibilities. Whether in private
universities, especially the larger and more practice or in an organizational setting,
prestigious ones. Although extensive training physicians must determine the most appropriate
may be required for professional work, the type of medical treatment for their patients, and
requirement of university training serves as a lawyers must decide the most successful type of
barrier to limit the number of professionals and defense of their clients. This is one of the most
thus to provide them with an economic satisfying aspects of professional work. The
advantage. justification for unusual degree of autonomy is
Possessing Knowledge and Skills are vital to the that only the professional has sufficient
well-being to the larger society: knowledge to determine the appropriate
 Professional’s knowledge and skills are vital to professional services in a given situation.
the well-being of the larger society. A society A claim to be regulated by ethical standards usually
that has a sophisticated scientific and embodied in a code of ethics that promotes the
technological base is especially dependent on good of the public:
its professional elite. We rely on the knowledge  Professionals claim to be regulated by ethical
possessed by physicians to protect us from standards, many of which are embodied in a
disease and restore us to health. The lawyer code of ethics. The degree of control that
has knowledge vital to our welfare if we have professions possess over the services that are
been sued or accused of a crime, if our business vital to the well-being of the rest of the
has been forced into bankruptcy, or if we want to community provides an obvious temptation for
get a divorce or buy a house. The accountant’s abuse, so most professions attempt to limit
knowledge is also important for our business these abuses by regulating themselves for the
success or when we have to file a tax return. public benefit. Professional codes are ordinarily
Likewise, we are dependent on the knowledge promulgated by professional societies.
and research of scientists and engineers for our Sometimes professional societies attempt to
safety in an airplane, for many of the punish members who violate their codes, but
technological advances on which our material their powers are limited to expelling errant
civilization rests, and for national defense. Since members. State boards have much stronger
professional services are vital to the general legal powers, including the ability to withdraw
welfare, citizens are willing to pay any price to professional licenses and even institute criminal
get them. proceedings. These regulatory agencies are
A monopoly or near monopoly on the provision of controlled by professionals themselves.
professional services and considerable control over Core Qualities of Professionals:
professional education and the standards for  Integrity: Openness and honesty, both with
admission into the profession: themselves and with others.
 Professionals usually have a monopoly on, or at  Independence: T be free of secondary interests
least considerable control over, the provision of with other parties.
professional services in their area. This control  Impartiality: To be free of bias and unbalanced
is achieved in two ways. First, the profession interests.
convinces the community that only those who  Responsibility: The recognition and
have graduated from a professional school acceptance of personal commitment.
should be allowed to hold the professional title.  Competence: Thorough knowledge of the work
The profession usually also gains considerable they undertake to do.
control over professional schools by establishing  Discretion: Care with communication and
accreditation standards that regulate the quality, trustworthiness.
curriculum content, and number of such schools.
Second, a profession often attempts to
persuade the community that there should be a 7a) Show the distinction between formal truth and
licensing system for those who want to enter material truth
into the profession. Those who practice without Truth is one of the central problems of epistemology.
a license are subject to legal penalties. Although Truth ultimately means consistency or harmony. Truth
it can be argued that monopoly is necessary to refers to the state of being in accordance with facts or
protect the public from unqualified practitioners, reality.
it also increases the power of professionals in  Formal truth and material truth:
the marketplace.  A judgment is formally true when it has a
An unusual degree of autonomy in the workplace: harmony within itself, without any necessary
 Professionals often have an unusual degree of reference to the facts. For example, “Mr. X is a
autonomy in the workplace. This is especially shrew” is formally untrue, since there is an
 obvious contradiction between its subject and o A judgment or proposition is true if and
predicate. only if it corresponds to the facts or
 “Mr. X lives in the Mars” is formally true even agrees with reality. “The sun is hot”,
though we know of none like him. “Honey is sweet” is true because it
 An argument lacks formal truth when its conforms to the actual situation.
premises and conclusion cannot be accepted Empiricists support this view.
together or have no necessary relation.
 An argument is formally true only when its  Aristotle: “To say of what is that it is not or what is
premise and conclusion can be and must be not that is, is false; while to say of what is that it is,
accepted together. and of what is not that it is not, is true.”
 On the other hand, a judgment is materially  Russell: A belief is true when there is a
true when, besides being formally true, it is corresponding fact, and is false when there is no
consistent with the facts. corresponding fact.
 Formal truth is called validity and material
truth is called simply truth.  The Pragmatic Test of Truth:
o Truth is not a stagnant property. Truth
means utility and workability. No ideas
are originally true or false. They become
true by the process of verification. Ideas
7b) Discuss different theories of truth are instruments of action, and become
true or false according as they satisfy or
[Link] do not satisfy the purpose in hand.
 Example: The transparent liquid substance is water
indirect answer** if it can help to quench one’s thirst.
Truth is one of the central problems of epistemology.  William James, F.C.S Schiller, John Dewey and C.S
Truth ultimately means consistency or harmony. Truth Pierce were the advocates.
refers to the state of being in accordance with facts or
reality.
8a) What is environmental philosophy? Show the
 The Test of Authority: distinction between anthropocentrism and non-
o The truth or falsity of judgments is to be anthropocentrism
determined with reference to some
authority. A judgment is true if it either  Definition of Environmental Philosophy:
directly comes from that authority, or is o Environmental philosophy is the
consistent with those already accepted systematic account of the moral
upon that authority. Superiors, parents, relations between human beings and
teachers, largely applied in religion. nonhuman natural entities.
 The Test of Self-evidence or Obviousness:  Anthropocentrism
o According to this test, a judgment is o Anthropocentrism is the philosophical
true, if its truth is apparent, self-evident perspective asserting that ethical
or obvious; no reasoning or reference to principles apply to humans only, and
the facts is necessary. that human need and interests are of
o “Nothing can be both black and not highest, and even exclusive value and
black.” “Apart is always less than the importance? ([Link](1998)
whole.” Descartes and Leibniz are the Environmental Ethics, Boston, USA;
advocates of this test. McGrawHill Co. Inc., p-309)
 Spinoza: Just as light reveals both itself and  Nonanthropocentric
darkness, so truth is the standard of itself and of the o Nonanthropocentrists challenge the
false. domination ideology that often goes
hand in hand with the assertion of
 The test of Coherence or Consistency:
human superiority.
o A judgment is true if it coheres or is
o Nonanthropocentric views say that
consistent with a judgment which has
already been proved to be true. human interests are not the exclusive
Supported by rationalists. and significant source and locus of
o Air is essential to life, The moon is value in the world.
o The moral right and independent moral
without air, Therefore, the moon is
without living beings. standing of natural objects, plants and
animals must be endorsed within the
 The Test of Correspondence: domain of moral discourse.
o Nonanthropocentrism condemns human
imperialism as illogical and asserts that
 human beings are just part of nature than human being. That’s why dogs are used in different
and as such should be treated on par airports and by the law and enforcement authorities for
with the others. identifying illegal drugs and arms. Ant can carry six
times more weight than its own body weight.
8b) What are the arguments in favor of the
anthropocentric domination of our nature - Do you For the sake of argument, if we assume that human
agree with them? Justify your position. / Superiority beings are superior in terms of quality, nevertheless,
doesn't imply domination rather leads to they are not entitled to dominate nature. Because,
superiority does not imply domination, rather it leads to
responsibility.
responsibility. So, if we claim that we are superior in
terms of quality, we must shoulder greater responsibility
Arguments in favor of the anthropocentric to make this world livable, habitable and sustainable for
domination over nature. both present and future generations
 The Natural Need Argument:
o All living beings must use external
nature to meet their species needs to
survive.
o All living beings place their own species-
needs over those of other species.
o Therefore, placing human needs over
those of other species is natural for
Homosapiens.
o Unrestricted human use of nature is
morally justified.
o Therefore, dominate nature.
 The Human superiority argument: (Theistic
point of view):
o Creation is natural hierarchy, with
human at its apex.
o Humans are creation’s only morally
considerable being.
o Non-human beings are mere means for
human use.
o Unrestricted human use of nature is
morally justified
o Therefore, dominate nature.
 Human superiority argument: (Secular point
of view):
 Homo sapiens is superior to all other
species by virtue of at least one unique trait,
e.g. tool using capacity, deliberate
production, linguistic ability, communicative
power, reasoning capacity, scientific ability,
culture, free will and the like.
 Humans are nature’s only morally
considerable beings.
 Non-human beings are mere means for
human use.
 Unrestricted human use of nature is morally
justified.
 Therefore, dominate nature

But these arguments do not stand scrutiny. The qualities

possessed by human beings are not unique in the sense
that those qualities are also available in case of
nonhuman beings. Rather we can say that there are
many unique qualities possessed by non-human beings
which are not found in case of human beings. Elephants
can guess the presence of water even from three miles
away. Dogs have 2000 times more smelling capacity