Like Charges and Unlike Charges: An Electric Field Line:

Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other. It is a curve drawn in such a way that the tangent at each point
• Conductors and Insulators: on the curve gives the direction of electric field at that point.
Conductors allow movement of electric charge through Important Properties of Field Lines:
them, insulators do not. These are:
• Quantization of Electric Charge: It means that total (i) Field lines are continuous curves without any breaks.
charge (q) of a body is always an integral multiple of a (ii) Two field lines cannot cross each other.
basic quantum of (iii) Electrostatic field lines start at positive charges and end
charge (e) at negative charges – they
q = ne cannot form closed loops.
where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …. • Electric Field at a Point due to Charge q:
• Additivity of Electric Charges: F
Total charge of a system is the algebraic sum of all E=
individual charges in the system. q
• Electric Field due to an Electric Dipole in its
• Conservation of Electric Charges:
Equatorial Plane at a Distance r from the Centre:
The total charge of an isolated system remains uncharged −𝑝 1
with time. 𝐸⃗ = 3
4𝜋𝜀0
(𝑎2 +𝑟 2 )2
−𝑝
• Superposition Principle: ≅ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟r>>a
4𝜋𝜀0
It is the properties of forces with which two charges
• Electric Field due to an Electric Dipole on the Axis at
attract or repel each other are not affected by the
a Distance r from the Centre:
presence of a third (or more) additional charge(s). 2𝑝𝑟
𝐸=
4𝜋𝜀0 (𝑟 2 −𝑎2 )2
• The Electric Field E at a Point due to a Charge
2𝑝
Configuration: It is the force on a small positive test ≅ , 𝑓𝑜𝑟r>>a
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 3
charges q placed at the point divided by a magnitude
• A Dipole Placed in Uniform Electric Field E
experiences:
Torque  ,
𝜏 = 𝑝𝑥𝐸⃗
• The Electric Flux:
𝜙 = ∫ 𝑑𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠is a ‘dot’ product, hence it is scalar.
𝜋
 is positive for all values of 𝜃 < 2
|𝑞|
𝜋
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2  is negative for all values of 𝜃 > 2
It is radially outwards from q, if q is positive and radially • Gauss’s Law:
inwards if q is negative. The flux of electric field through any closed surface S is
E at a point varies inversely as the square of its distance 1/ε0 times the total charge enclosed by S.
from Q, the plot of E versus r will look like the figure 𝜙 = ∫ 𝐸⃗ . 𝑑𝑠 =
𝑞

given below. 𝜀0

Coulomb’s Law: • Electric field outside the charged shell is as though the
The mutual electrostatic force between two point charges q 1 total charge is concentrated at the centre. The same
and q2 is proportional to the product q1q2 and inversely result is true for a solid sphere of uniform volume charge
proportional to the square of the distance r21 separating density.
them. • The electric field is zero at all points inside a charged
shell.
k (q1q 2)
F21 ( force on q 2 due to q1 = rˆ21 • Electric field E, due to an infinitely long straight wire
r212 of uniform linear charge density λ:
Where r̂21 is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to q2 and 𝐸=
𝜆
. 𝑛̂
2𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
1 where r is the perpendicular distance of the point from
k= is the proportionality constant.
4 0 the wire and is the radial unit vector in the plane normal
to the wire passing through the point.
 where r is the distance of the point from the centre of the
• Electric field E, due to an infinite thin plane sheet of
shell and R the radius of the shell, q is the total charge of
uniform surface charge density σ:
𝜎 the shell & q = 4πR2σ.
𝐸= . 𝑛̂
2𝜀0 • Electric field E along the outward normal to the surface
Where 𝑛̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane, outward on is zero and σ is the surface charge density. Charges in a
either side. conductor can reside only at its surface. Potential is
• Electric field E, due to thin spherical shell of uniform constant within and on the surface of a conductor. In a
surface charge density σ: cavity within a conductor (with no charges), the electric
𝑞
𝐸= 2 . 𝑟̂ (𝑟 ≥ 𝑅)
field is zero.
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
E = 0(𝑟 < 𝑅)
• Electrostatic Potential at a Point: • Capacitance is determined purely geometrically, by the
It is the work done by per unit charge by an external shapes, sizes, and relative positions of the two
agency, in bringing a charge from infinity to that point. conductors.
• Electrostatic Potential due to a Charge at a Point: • Capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor (with
𝑉(𝑟) = 1
2 𝑄
vacuum between the plates):
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟
A
• The electrostatic potential at a point with position C = 0
vector r due to a point dipole of dipole moment p d
place at the origin is Where A is the area of each plate and d the separation
1 𝑝.𝑟 between them.
𝑉(𝑟) =
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟 2 • For capacitors in the series combination:
The result is true also for a dipole (with charges –q and q The total capacitance C is
separated by 2a) for r >> a.
1 1 1 1
• For a charge configuration q1, q2, …… qn with position = + + + ....
vectors r1, r2, ….rn, the potential at a point P is given C C1 C2 C3
by the superposition principle, • For capacitors in the parallel combination:
1 𝑞1 𝑞2 𝑞𝑛
𝑉= ( + +...... + ) The total capacitance C is
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟1𝑝 𝑟2𝑝 𝑟𝑛𝑝
= 1 + C2 + C3 + ……
Where r1p is the distance between q1, and P, as and so on.
Where C1, C2, C3 C ... C are individual capacitances
• Electrostatics Potential Energy Stored in a System of
• The energy U stored in a capacitor of capacitance C,
Charges:
with charge Q and voltage V:
It is the work done (by an external agency) in assembling
the charges at their locations. 1 1 1 Q2
U= QV = CV 2 =
• Electrostatic Potential Energy of Two Charges q 1, q2, 2 2 2 C
at r1, r2: • The electric energy density (energy per unit volume)
1 𝑞1 𝑞2
𝑈= in a region with electric field:
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟12
Where r12 is distance between q1 and q2 (1/ 2)ε0 E2
• Potential Energy of a Charge q in an External • The potential difference between the conductor
Potential: (radius r0) inside & outside spherical shell (radius
V(r)= qv(r) R):
𝑞 1 1
• Potential Energy of a Dipole of Dipole Moment p in a 𝜙(𝑟0 ) − 𝜙(𝑅) = ( − )
4𝜋𝜀0 𝑟0 𝑅
Uniform Electric Field: Which is always positive.
E = –p.E.
• When the medium between the plates of a capacitor
• Equipotential Surface: filled with an insulating substance: Changes
An equipotential surface is a surface over which potential observed are as follows:
has a constant value. i. Polarization of the medium gives rise to a field in the
(A) For a point charge, concentric spheres centered at a opposite direction.
location of the charge are equipotential surfaces. ii. The net electric field inside the insulating medium is
(B) The electric field E at a point is perpendicular to the reduced.
equipotential surface through the point. iii. Potential difference between the plates is thus
(C) E is in the direction of the steepest decrease of reduced.
potential. iv. Capacitance C increases from its value when there is
• Capacitance C of a System of Two Conductors no medium (vacuum).
Separated by an Insulator: • Electrostatic Shielding:
It is defined as, A conductor has a cavity with no charge inside the cavity,
𝑄
C= then no matter what happens outside the conductor.
𝑉
Where Q and – Q are the charges on the two conductors Even if there are intense electric fields outside the
V is the potential difference between them. conductor, the cavity inside has, shielding whatever is
inside the cavity from whatever is outside the cavity. This
is called electrostatic shielding.
• Electrical Conductivity: (b) Insulators like glass and rubber have high resistivity:
It is the inverse of specific resistance for a conductor Range of ρ varies from 1022 to 1024 times greater than
whereas the specific resistance is the resistance of unit that of metals.
cube of the material of the conductor. (c) Semiconductors like Si and Ge lie roughly in the
1 ne2 middle range of resistivity on a logarithmic scale.
= = • Total resistance in Series and in Parallel
 m
(a) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in series is
Where σ is the conductivity and ρ is resistivity. given by R = R1 + R2 + … + Rn
• SI Unit of Conductivity: (b) Total resistance R of n resistors connected in parallel
The SI unit of conductivity is mho m-1. is given by
• Current through a given area of a conductor: 1 1 1 1
= + +. . . . . . +
It is the net charge passing per unit time through the area. 𝑅 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑅𝑛
• Current Density Vector: • If the mass of a charge carrier is large, then for a given
The current density vector 𝑗⃗ gives current per unit area field 𝐸⃗⃗ , its acceleration will be small and will contribute
flowing through area ∆A when it is held normal to the very little to the electric current.
direction of charge flow. Note that the direction of 𝑗⃗ is in • Electrical Conductivity:
the direction of current flow. When a conducting substance is brought under the
• Current Density:
influence of an electric field 𝐸⃗⃗ , free charges (e.g. free
Current density j gives the amount of charge flowing per
electrons in metals) move under the influence of this field
second per unit area normal to the flow.
in such a manner, that the current density 𝑗⃗ due to their
J = nqVq
motion is proportional to the applied electric field.
where n is the number density (number per unit volume)
𝑗⃗ = σ 𝐸⃗⃗
of charge carriers each of charge q and vd is the drift
velocity of the charge carriers. For electrons q = –e. If j is
normal to a cross – sectional area A and is constant over
the area, the magnitude of the current I through the area
is d neVdA.
• Mobility:
Mobility µ is defined to be the magnitude of drift velocity
per unit electric field.
𝑉
𝜇 = ( 𝑑) where σ is a constant of proportionality called electrical
𝐸
𝑞𝜏𝐸 conductivity. This statement is one possible form of
Now, 𝑉𝑑 =
𝑚𝑞 Ohm’s law.
where q is the electric charge of the current carrier and • Consider a cylindrical material with cross sectional area A
mq is its mass. and length L through which a current is passing along the
𝑞𝜏
∴𝜇=( ) length and normal to the area A, then, since 𝑗⃗ and 𝐸⃗⃗ are
𝑚𝑞
in the same direction,
Thus, mobility is a measure of response of a charge carrier
J = σE
to a given external electric field.
JAL = σELA
• Resistivity: Where A is cross sectional area and L is length of the
Resistivity ρ is defined to be reciprocal of conductivity. material through which a current is passing along the
1
𝜌= length, normal to the area A. But, JA = I, the current
𝜎
It is measured in ohm-metre (Qm). through the area A and EL = V1 - V2, the potential
difference across the ends of the cylinder denoting V1-V2
• Resistivity as a function of temperature:
as V,
It is given as, 𝐼𝐿
ρT = ρ0 [1 + α(T – T0)] 𝑉 = = 𝑅𝐼
𝜎𝐴
𝐿
Where α is the temperature coefficient of resistivity and Where 𝑅 = is called resistance of the material. In this
𝜎𝐴
ρT is the resistivity of the material at temperature T. form, Ohm's law can be stated as a linear relationship
• Ranges of Resistivity: between the potential drop across a substance and the
(a) Metals have low resistivity: Range of ρ varies from current passing through it.
10–8 Ω m to 10–6 Ω m. • Measuring resistance:
1𝑉
R is measured in ohm ((Ω)), where 1𝛺 =
𝐴
 𝑅1 𝑅3
• EMF: ∴ =
𝑅2 𝑅4
Emf (Electromotive force) is the name given to a non-
This is also known as the balanced condition. If R1, R2, R3
electrostatic agency. Typically, it is a battery, in which a
are known, R4 can be determined.
chemical process achieves this task of doing work in 𝑅
driving the positive charge from a low potential to a high 𝑅4 = ( 2 ) 𝑅3
𝑅1
potential. The effect of such a source is measured in terms • In a balanced condition of the meter bridge,
of work done per unit charge in moving a charge once 𝑅 𝑃 𝜎𝑙1
= =
𝑆 𝑄 100−𝑙1
around the circuit. This is denoted by ∈. 1 𝑆𝑙
∴ 𝑅 = (100−𝑙
• Kirchhoff's First Rule: 1)

At any junction of several circuit elements, the sum of Where σ is the resistance per unit length of wire and l1 is
currents entering the junction must equal the sum of the length of wire from one end where null point is
currents leaving it. obtained.
In the above junction, current I enters it and currents I 1 • Potentiometer:
and I2 leave it. Then, The potentiometer is a device to compare potential
I = I1 + I2 differences. Since the method involves a condition of no
This is a consequence of charge conservation and current flow, the device can be used to measure potential
assumption that currents are steady, that is no charge differences; internal resistance of a cell and compare
piles up at the junction. emf’s of two sources.
• Kirchhoff's Second Rule: • Potential Gradient:
The algebraic sum of changes in potential around any The potential gradient of the wire in a potentiometer
closed resistor loop must be zero. This is based on the depends on the current in the wire.
principle that electrostatic forces alone cannot do any • If an emf ∈1 is balanced against length l1, then ∈ = ρl1
work in a closed loop, since this work is equal to potential Similarly, if ∈2 is balanced against l2, then ∈2 = ρl2
difference, which is zero, if we start at one point of the The comparison of emf’s of the two cells is given by,
loop and come back to it. ∈ 𝑙
∴ 1= 1
• Wheatstone Bridge: ∈2 𝑙2
Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances
R1, R2, R3, R4. The null point condition is given by,
• Force on a Straight Conductor: • Magnetic Field:
Force F on a straight conductor of length l and carrying a Magnetic field at a distance R from a long, straight wire
steady current I placed in a uniform external magnetic field carrying a current I is given by,
B, 𝜇0 𝐼
𝐵=
⃗
𝐹 = 𝐼𝑙 𝑥𝐵 2𝑅
The field lines are circles concentric with the wire.
• Lorentz Force:
Force on a charge q moving with velocity v in the presence of • Magnetic field B inside a long Solenoid carrying a current I:
magnetic and electric fields B and E. B = µ0nI
⃗ +𝐸⃗ ) Where n is the number of turns per unit length.
𝐹 =q(𝑣 x𝐵
• For a toroid,
• Magnetic Force: 𝜇 𝑁𝐼
B= 0
⃗ ) is normal to 𝑉
The magnetic force 𝐹 B = q(𝑣 x𝐵 ⃗ and work done 2∏𝑟

by it is zero. Where N is the total numbers of turns and r is the average

radius.
• Cyclotron:
A charge q executes a circular orbit in a plane normal with • Magnetic Moment of a Planar Loop:
frequency called the cyclotron frequency given by, Magnetic moment m of a planar loop carrying a current I,
𝑞𝐵 having N closely wound turns, and an area A, is
𝑣𝑐 = 𝑚
⃗⃗ = 𝑁𝐼𝐴
2𝜋𝑚
This cyclotron frequency is independent of the particle’s
• Direction of 𝑚⃗⃗ is given by the Right – Hand Thumb Rule:
speed and radius.
Curl and palm of your right hand along the loop with the
• Biot – Savart Law: fingers pointing in the direction of the current, the thumb
It asserts that the magnetic field d𝐵⃗ due to an element d𝑙 sticking out gives the direction of
carrying a steady current I at a point P at a distance r from 𝑚⃗⃗ (𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐴)
the current element is,
• Loop placed in a Uniform Magnetic Field:
𝜇0 𝑑𝑙𝑥𝑟
⃗ =
𝑑𝐵 𝐼 (a) When this loop is placed in a uniform magnetic field B,
4𝛱 𝑟3
Then, the force F on it is, F = 0
• Magnetic Field due to Circular Coil:
And the torque on it is, 𝜏 = 𝑚 ⃗
⃗⃗ 𝑥𝐵
Magnetic field due to circular coil of radius R carrying a
current I at an axial distance X from the centre is In a moving coil galvanometer, this torque is balanced
𝜇0 𝐼𝑅 2 by (a) counter torque due to a spring, yielding.
𝐵= kΦ = NI AB
2(𝑋 2 +𝑅 2 )3/2
At the centre of the coil, where Φ is the equilibrium deflection and k the torsion
𝜇 𝐼
𝐵= 0 constant of the spring.
2𝑅
• Ampere’s Circuital Law: • Magnetic Moment in an Electron:
For an open surface S bounded by a loop C, then the An electron moving around the central nucleus has a
Ampere’s law states that magnetic moment µl, given by
𝑒
𝑜
∫𝑐 𝐵⃗ . 𝑑𝑙 = 𝜇0 𝐼 𝜇𝑙 = 𝑙
2𝑚
where I refer to the current passing through S. where l is the magnitude of the angular momentum of the
• If B is directed along the tangent to every point on the circulating electron about the central nucleus.
perimeter them • Bohr Magneton:
BL = µ0 Ie The smallest value of µ𝑙 is called the Bohr magneton µ𝐵
Where Ie is the net current enclosed by the closed circuit. µ𝐵 = 9.27 x 10-24 J/T
• Magnetic materials tend to point in the north – south These are known as the elements of the earth’s magnetic
direction. field.
• Like magnetic poles repel and unlike ones attract. • Magnetic Intensity:
• Magnetic poles cannot be isolated. ⃗⃗0 .
Consider a material placed in an external magnetic field 𝐵
• When a bar magnet of dipole moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ is placed in a The magnetic intensity is,
uniform magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗, then,
B0
a) The force on it is zero H=
b) The torque on it is 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗𝑥𝐵⃗⃗ 0
c) Its potential energy is −𝑚 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗. 𝐵 If the magnetization 𝑀 ⃗⃗⃗ of the material is its dipole moment
where we choose the zero of energy at the orientation per unit volume, then the magnetic field 𝐵 ⃗⃗ in the material
when 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗ is perpendicular to 𝐵 ⃗⃗. will be,
• Consider a bar magnet of size 𝑙 and magnetic moment 𝑚 ⃗⃗⃗, at ⃗⃗ = 𝜇0 (𝐻
𝐵 ⃗⃗ + 𝑀
⃗⃗⃗)
a distance r from its mid – point, where r >>𝑙, the magnetic For a linear material,
field 𝐵⃗⃗ due to this bar is, 𝑀⃗⃗⃗ = χ𝐻⃗⃗
⃗⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗3
𝐵
𝜇0 𝑚
(along axis) So that,
2∏𝑟 ⃗⃗= 𝜇 𝐻 ⃗⃗
⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝜇0 𝑚 𝐵
= (along equator) Where χ is the magnetic susceptibility of the material and 𝜇,
4∏𝑟 3
• Gauss’s Law for Magnetism: is the relative magnetic permeability.
It states that the net magnet flux through any closed surface • Relationship between 𝜇, 𝜇0 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝜇2 :
is zero The magnetic permeability area, 𝜇 is related as,
B =  B. S = 0
all area
𝜇 = 𝜇0 𝜇𝑟
𝜇𝑟 = 1 + 𝜒
elements S • Classification of Magnetic Materials:
• Poles: Magnetic materials area broadly classified as,
(a) The pole near the geographic north pole of the earth is (a) Diamagnetic
called the north magnetic pole. (b) Paramagnetic
(b) The pole near the geographic south – pole is called the (c) Ferromagnetic
south magnetic pole. • Magnetic Susceptibility of the Material for Magnetic
(c) The magnitude of the magnetic field on the earth’s Materials:
surface = 4 x 10-5 T. (a) For diamagnetic materials χ is negative and small.
• Elements of the Earth’s Magnetic Field: (b) For paramagnetic materials χ is positive ad small.
Three quantities are needed to specify the magnetic field of (c) For ferromagnetic materials χ lies between 𝐵 ⃗⃗ and 𝐻
⃗⃗
the earth on its surface, • Permanent Magnets:
(a) The horizontal component Substances which retain their ferromagnetic property for a
(b) The magnetic declination long period of time at room temperature are called
(c) The magnetic dip. permanent magnets.
• Magnetic Flux:
Magnetic flux through a plane of area dA placed in a uniform ( )
E = −l . vxB

If e , v and B are perpendicular to each other, then

E = Bvl
• Induced EMF due to Rotation of a Conducting Rod in a
Uniform Magnetic Field:
The induced emf,
1
E= Bl 2 = B nl 2 = BAn
2
Where n is the frequency of rotation of the conducting
rod.
• Induced Emf due to Rotation of a Metallic Disc in a
Uniform Magnetic Field:
Magnetic field B
1
𝜙 = ∫𝐵 ⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 EOA = B R 2 = B R 2 n = BAn
If the surface is closed, then 2
⃗ . 𝑑𝐴 • Induced Emf, Current and Energy Conservation in a
𝜙 = ∫𝐵
This is because magnetic lines of force are closed lines and Rectangular Loop Moving in a Non – Uniform Magnetic
free magnetic poles do not exist. Field with a Constant Velocity:
• Faraday’s Law: a) The net increase in flux crossing through the coil in the
a) First Laws: whenever there is a change in the magnetic  t is,
flux linked with a circuit with time, an induced emf is  = ( B2 − B1 ) lvt
produced in the circuit which lasts as long as the change in
b) Induced emf in the coil is,
magnetic flux continues.
E = (B1 – B2)lv
b) Second Law: According to this law,
𝑑𝜙
c) If the resistance of the coil is R, then the induced
Induced emf, 𝐸 ∝ ( ) current in the coil is,
𝑑𝑡
• Lenz’s Law: E ( B1 − B2 )
The direction of the induced emf or current in the circuit is I= = lv
such that it opposes the cause due to which it is produced, R R
so that, d) Resultant force acting on the coil is
𝑑𝜙 F = Il(B1 – B2) (towards left)
𝐸 = −𝑁 ( ) e) The work done against the resultant force
𝑑𝑡
Where N is the number of turns in coil l 2v 2
W = ( B1 − B2 )
2
Lenz’s law is based on energy conservation. t joule
• Induced EMF and Induced Current: R
(a) Induced EMF, Energy supplied in this process appears in the form of
𝑑𝜙 heat energy in the circuit.
𝐸 = −𝑁 f) Energy supplied due to flow of current I in time  t is,
𝑑𝑡
𝑁(𝜙2 − 𝜙1 ) H = I 2 Rt
=−
𝑡
l 2v 2
Or H = ( B1 − B2 )
(b) Induced current, 2
t joule
E N  d  R
I= =−  
R R  dt  Or H = W
N (2 − 1 )
• Rotation of Rectangular Coil in a Uniform Magnetic
=− Field:
R t a) Magnetic flux linked with coil
Charge depends only on net change in flux does not Ф = BAN cosθ
depends on time.
• Induced Emf due to Linear Motion of a Conducting Rod =BAN cosωt
in Uniform Magnetic Field b) Induced emf in the coil
The induced emf,
 d Mutual inductance for two coils wound in same direction
E= = BAN sin t = E0 E sin t and connected in series
dt L = L1 + L2 + 2M
c) Induced current in the coil.
Mutual inductance for two coils wound in opposite
E BAN 
I= = sin t direction and connected in series
R R L = L1 + L2 - 2M
Mutual inductance for two coils in parallel
E0
= sin  t 𝐿1 𝐿2 − 𝑀2
R 𝐿=
𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ± 2𝑀
d) Both Emf and current induced in the coil are alternating • Energy Stored in an Inductor:
• Self-Induction and Self Inductance: 1
a) The phenomenon in which an induced emf is produced 𝑈𝐵 = 𝐿𝐼 2 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
by changing the current in a coil is called self in induction. • Magnetic Energy Density:
𝜙 ∝ 𝐼or𝜙 = 𝐿𝐼 𝐵2
𝜙 𝑈𝐵 =
𝑜𝑟L= 2𝜇0
𝐼
𝑑𝐼 • Eddy Current:
𝐸 = −𝐿
𝑑𝑡 When a conductor is moved in a magnetic field, induced
𝐸
𝐿= currents are generated in the whole volume of the
−(𝑑𝐼/𝑑𝑡)
Where L is a constant, called self-inductance or coefficient conductor. These currents are called eddy currents.
of self – induction. • Transformer:
b) Self-inductance of a circular coil It is a device which changes the magnitude of alternating
0 N 2 R 0 N 2 A voltage or current.
L= = Es ns
2 2R = =K
c) Self-inductance of a solenoid E p np
0 N A 2 For ideal transformer:
L= Ip ns
l =
d) Two coils of self – inductances L1 and L2 placed far away Is np
(i.e., without coupling) from each other. In an ideal transformer:
(i) For series combination: E pI p = E sI s
L = L1 + L2. … Ln In step – up transformer:
ii) For series combination: ns > np or K > 1
1 1 1 1
= + +. . . . + Es > Ep and Is < Ip
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿𝑛 In step – down transformer:
• Mutual Induction and Mutual Inductance: ns < np or K > 1
(a) On changing the current in one coil, if the magnetic Es < Ep and Is > Ip
flux linked with a second coil changes and induced Efficiency
emf is produced in that coil, then this phenomenon is 𝐸 𝐼
𝜂 = 𝑠 𝑠 𝑥100%
called mutual induction. 𝐸𝑝 𝐼𝑝
𝜙2 ∝ 𝐼1 or𝜙2 = 𝑀𝐼1 • Generator or Dynamo:
𝜙2 It is a device by which mechanical energy is converted into
Or𝑀 =
𝐼1 electrical energy. It is based on the principle of
𝑑𝜙2 𝑑𝐼1 electromagnetic induction.
𝐸2 = − = −𝑀 • Different Types of Generators:
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐸2 a) AC Generator
𝑀=
−(𝑑𝐼1 /𝑑𝑡) It consists of field magnet, armature, slip rings and
Therefore, M12 = M21 = M brushes.
b) Mutual inductance two coaxial solenoids b) DC Generator
𝜇0 𝑁1 𝑁2 𝐴 It consists of field magnet, armature, commutator and
𝑀=
𝑙 brushes.
If two coils of self-inductance L1 and L2 are wound over • Motor:
each other, the mutual inductance is, It is a device which converts electrical energy into
M = K L1L2 mechanical energy.
Back emf e  
Where K is called coupling constant.
Current flowing in the coil,
 E − eb Output Power = iaeb
ia = Efficiency,
R
eb
E = eb + ia R = 100%
Where R is the resistance of the coil.
E
• Alternating Current: Impedance is defined as,
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸
The current whose magnitude changes with time and 𝑍 = = 0 𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝜙
𝐼 𝐼0 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
direction reverses periodically is called alternating current. a)
Where Ф is the phase difference of the voltage E relative to
Alternating emf E and current I at any time am given by:
the current I.
𝐸 = 𝐸0 sin 𝜔𝑡
(a) For L – R series circuit:
𝐸0 = 𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
Where 𝑍𝑅𝐿 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 = √𝑅2 + 𝜔𝐿2
𝜔𝐿 𝜔𝐿
𝐼 = 𝐼0 sin (𝜔𝑡 − Ф) tan 𝜙 = ( ) 𝑜𝑟𝜙 = tan−1 ( )
𝑅 𝑅
𝑁𝐵𝐴𝜔
Where 𝐼0 = (b) For R – C series circuit:
𝑅
2𝜋 1 2
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑛 = 𝑍𝑅𝐶 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐶2 = √𝑅2 + ( )
𝑇 𝜔𝐶
1 1
Where T is the time period. tan𝜙 = Or 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝜔𝐶𝑅 𝜔𝐶𝑅
• Values of Alternating Current and Voltage
(c) For L – C series circuit:
(a) Instantaneous value:
It is the value of alternating current and voltage at an 𝑍𝐿𝐶𝑅 = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2
instant t. 1 2
(b) Peak value: = √𝑅2 + (𝜔𝐿 − )
𝜔𝐶
Maximum values of voltage E0 and current I0 in a cycle
1 1
are called peak values. (𝜔𝐿 − ) 𝜔𝐿 −
tan𝜙 = 𝜔𝐶 −1
Or 𝜙 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 ( 𝜔𝐶 )
(c) Mean value: 𝑅 𝑅
For complete cycle,
𝐼 𝑇 • Conductance:
< 𝐸 >= ∫0 𝐸𝑑𝑡 = 0
𝑇 Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance.
𝐼 𝑇
< 𝐼 >= ∫ 𝐸𝑑𝑡 =0 1
𝑇 0 𝐺 = 𝑚ℎ𝑜
𝑅
2 E0
Mean value for half cycle: Emean = • Power in and AC Circuit:
 (a) Electric power = (current in circuit) x (voltage in circuit)
(d) Root – mean- square (rms) value: P = IE
𝐸
𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (< 𝐸 2 >)1/2 = 0 = 0.707𝐸0 = 70.7%𝐸0 (b) Instantaneous power:
√2
𝐼0 Pinst = Einst X Iinst
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (< 𝐼 2 >)1/2 = = 0.707𝐼0 = 70.7%𝐼0 (c) Average power:
√2 1
RMS values are also called apparent or effective values. 𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝐸0 𝐼0 cos𝜙 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
2
• Phase difference Between the EMF (Voltage) and the (d) Virtual power (apparent power):
Current in an AC Circuit 1
= 𝐸0 𝐼0 = 𝐸𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
2
(a) For pure resistance:
• Power Factor:
The voltage and the current are in same phase i.e. phase
(a) Power factor
difference Ф = 0 𝑃 𝑅
(b) For pure inductance: 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 𝑎𝑣 =
𝑃𝑣 𝑍
𝜋
The voltage is ahead of current by i .e. phase difference Ф (b) For pure inductance
2
= + .
𝜋
Power factor, cos  =1
2
(c) For pure capacitance: (c) For pure capacitance
Power factor, cos  =0
𝜋
The voltage lags behind the current by i.e. phase difference
2
𝜋
Ф = −2 (d) For LCR circuit
𝑅
• Reactance: Power factor, 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙 = 2
√𝑅 2 +(𝜔𝐿− 1 )
Reactance 𝜔𝐶
𝐸 𝐸 𝐸 1
(a) 𝑋 = = 0 𝑟𝑚𝑠 ± 𝜋/2 𝑋 = (𝜔𝐿 −
𝜔𝐶
)
𝐼 𝐼0 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
Inductive reactance • Wattless Current:
𝜋
(b) XL = ωL=2πnL The component of current differing in phase by relative to
2
Capacitive reactance the voltage, is called wattles current.
1 1 • The rms value of wattless current:
(c) XC = =
𝜔𝐶 2π𝑛𝐶
• Impedance:
 𝐼0
= 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 • Half – Power Frequencies:
√2
𝐼0 𝑋 Those frequencies f1 and f2 at which the power is half of the
= 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙 = ( ) maximum power (power at resonance), i.e., f 1 and f2 are
√2 𝑍
• Choke Coil: called half – power frequencies.
(a) An inductive coil used for controlling alternating current 1
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
whose self- inductance is high and resistance in 𝐼𝑚𝑎𝑥
negligible, is called choke coil. 𝐼=
√2
𝑃
(b) The power factor of this coil is approximately zero. ∴ 𝑃 = 𝑚𝑎𝑥
2
• Series Resonant Circuit • Band – Width:
(a) When the inductive reactance (XL) becomes equal to the (a) The frequency interval between half – power
capacitive reactance (XC) in the circuit, the total frequencies is called band – width.
impedance becomes purely resistive (Z=R). ⸫ Bandwidth Δf = f2 – f1
(b) In this state, the voltage and current are in same phase ( (b) For a series LCR resonant circuit,
Ф = 0), the current and power are maximum and 𝛥𝑓 =
1 𝑅
2𝜋 𝐿
impedance is minimum. This state is called resonance. • Quality Factor (Q):
(c) At resonance, Maximumenergystored
1 𝑄 = 2𝜋 ×
𝜔𝑟 𝐿 = Energydissipatedpercycle
𝜔𝑟 𝐶 2𝜋 Maximumenergystored
= ×
Hence, resonance frequency is, 𝑇 Mean powerdissipated

𝑓𝑟 =
1 𝑂𝑟
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶 𝜔𝑟 𝐿 1 𝑓𝑟 𝑓𝑟
(d) In resonance, the power factor of the circuit is one. 𝑄= = = (𝑓 )
=
𝑅 𝜔𝑟 𝐶𝑅 2 −𝑓1 𝛥𝑓
• Displacement Current: Energy Density (Energy per unit volume) associated with
It is due to time-varying electric field is, these fields is,
𝑑𝜙 𝜔 1
𝑖𝑑 = 𝜀0 𝐸 𝑈 = 0 𝐸⃗ 2 + ⃗2
𝐵
𝑑𝑡 2 2𝜇0
Displacement current acts as a source of magnetic field in where we are assuming that the concerned space consists
exactly the same way as conduction current. of vacuum only.
• Electromagnetic Waves: • Electromagnetic waves transport momentum as well.
(a) Electromagnetic waves are produced only by charges When these waves strike a surface, a pressure is exerted
that are accelerating, since acceleration is absolute, on the surface.
and not a relative phenomenon. • If total energy transferred to a surface in time t is U, total
(b) An electric charge oscillating harmonically with momentum delivered to this surface is p = U/c.
frequency υ, produces electromagnetic waves of the • Electromagnetic Spectrum:
The spectrum of electromagnetic waves stretches, in
same frequency υ. principle, over an infinite range of wavelengths.
(c) An electric dipole is a basic source of electromagnetic The classification of electromagnetic waves according to
waves. frequency is the electromagnetic spectrum.
(d) Electromagnetic waves with wavelength of the order There is no sharp division between one kind of wave and
of a few metres were first produced and detected in the next.
the laboratory by Hertz in 1887. He thus verified a • The classification has more to do with the way these
basic prediction of Maxwell’s equations. waves are produced and detected.
• Oscillation of Electric and Magnetic Fields: • Different Regions of Spectrum:
These oscillate sinusoidally in space and time in an Different regions are known by different names; γ -rays,
electromagnetic wave. The oscillating electric and X-rays, ultraviolet rays, visible rays, infrared rays,
magnetic fields, E and B are perpendicular to each other microwaves and radio waves in order of increasing
and to the direction of propagation of the wavelength from 10-2 Å or 10-12 m to 106 m.
electromagnetic wave. (a) Radio Waves:
• For a wave of frequency υ, wavelength λ, propagating ✓ These are produced by accelerated motion of charges
along z-direction, in wires.
𝐸 = 𝐸𝑋 (𝑡) = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) ✓ These are used in radio and television communication
𝑧 𝑧 𝑡 systems.
= 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [2𝜋 ( − 𝑣𝑡)] = 𝐸0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [2𝜋 ( − )]
𝜆 𝜆 𝑇 ✓ These are generally in the frequency range from 500
𝐵 = 𝐵𝑌 (𝑡) = 𝐵0 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑘𝑧 − 𝜔𝑡) kHz to about 1000 MHz.
𝑧 𝑧 𝑡
= 𝐵0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [2𝜋 ( − 𝑣𝑡)] = 𝐵0 𝑠𝑖𝑛 [2𝜋 ( − )] (b) Microwaves:
𝜆 𝜆 𝑇
𝐸0 ✓ These are short wavelength radio waves with
They are related by =𝑐
𝐵0 frequencies in the gigahertz range.
• Relation between µ0 and 0 ε0: ✓ Due to their short wavelengths, they are suitable for
The speed c of electromagnetic wave in vacuum is related radar systems used in aircraft navigation.
to µ0 and ε0 (the free space permeability and permittivity ✓ Microwave ovens use them for cooking.
constants) as (c) Infrared Waves:
𝐶 = 1/√𝜇0 𝜀0 ✓ These are produced by hot bodies and molecules.
• The value of c equals the speed of light obtained from ✓ They lie in the low frequency or long wavelength end
optical measurements. Light is an electromagnetic wave; of the visible spectrum.
c is, therefore, also the speed of light. Electromagnetic (d) Visible Light:
waves other than light also have the same velocity c in ✓ The spectrum runs from about 4 x 1014 Hz to about 7 x
free space. 1014 Hz.
• Speed of Light: ✓ Our eyes are sensitive to this range of wavelengths.
The speed of light, or of electromagnetic waves in a (e) Ultraviolet light:
material medium is ✓ It covers wavelengths ranging from 400 nm to 0.6 nm.
𝑣 = 1√𝜇𝜀 ✓ The sun is an important source of UV rays.
Where µ is the permeability of the medium and ε its (f) X-rays:
permittivity ✓ These cover the range 10 nm to about 10-4 nm.
• Electromagnetic waves carry energy as they travel (g) Gamma Rays:
through space and this energy is shared equally by the ✓ These lie in the upper frequency range of the
electric and magnetic fields. spectrum, and have wavelengths in the range 10-10 m
• Energy Per Unit Volume: to 10-14 m.
If in a region of space in which there exist electric and
magnetic fields 𝐸⃗ and 𝐵⃗ , there exists
• Laws of Reflection: R
curvature of the mirror, i.e., f = .
The reflection at a plane surface always takes place in 2
accordance with the following two laws: • Principal Axis of the Mirror:
(i) The incident ray, the reflected ray and normal to surface The straight line joining the pole and the centre of
at the point of incidence all lie in the same plane. curvature of spherical mirror extended on both sides is
(ii) The angle of incidence, i is equal to the angle of called principal axis of the mirror.
reflection • Mirror Formula:
r, i. e., 1 1 1
∠i = ∠r = +
• Formation of Image by the Plane Mirror: f u v
The formation of image of apoint object O by a plane Where u= distance of the object from the pole of mirror
mirror is represented in figure. The image formed I has the v = distance of the image from the pole of mirror
following characteristics: f = focal length of the mirror
(i) The size of image is equal to the size of object. r
(ii) The object distance = Image distance i.e., OM = MI. f =
2
(iii) The image is virtual and erect. Where r is the radius of curvature of the mirror.
(iv) When a mirror is rotated through a certain angle, the • Magnification:
reflected ray is rotated through twice this angle. It is defined as the ratio of the size of the image to that of
• Reflection of Light from Spherical Mirror: the object.
a) A spherical mirror is a part cut from a hollow sphere. Linear magnification,
b) They are generally constructed from glass.
I v f −v f
c) The reflection at spherical mirror also takes place in m= =− = =
accordance with the laws of O u f f −u
reflection. Where I size of image and O = size of object.
• Sign Convention: • Magnification, m is positive, implies that the image is real
Following sign conventions are the new cartesian sign and inverted.
convention: • Magnification, m is negative, implies that the image is
(i) All distances are measured from the pole of the mirror & virtual and erect.
direction of the incident light is taken as positive. In other • Refraction:
words, the distances measured toward the right of the When a ray of light falls on the boundary separating the
origin are positive. two media, there is a change in direction of ray. This
(ii) The distance measured against the direction of the phenomenon is called refraction.
incident light are taken as negative. In other words, the • Laws of Refraction.
distances measured towards the left of origin are taken as (i) The incident ray normal at the point of incidence and
negative. refracted ray all lie in one plane.
(iv) The distance measured in the upward direction, (ii) For the same pair of media and the same color of
perpendicular to the principal axis of the mirror, are taken light, the ratio of the sine of the angle
as positive & the distances measured in the downward of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction is
direction are taken as negative. constant i.e.,
• Focal Length of a Spherical Mirror: sin i
a) The distance between the focus and the pole of the = a b
sin r
mirror is called focal length of the mirror and is represented
by f. Where a b is a constant known as Refractive Index of the
b) The focal length of a concave mirror is positive and that medium b with respect to the medium a, i is the angle
of a convex mirror is positive and that of a convex mirror is incidence in medium a and r is the angle of refraction in
negative. medium b.
(c) The focal length of a mirror (concave or convex) is equal • Principle of Reversibility of Light:
to half of the radius of As light follows a reversible path,
sin i
= a b
sin r
 1
Multiplying we get, 𝑃= 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑓(inmetres)
sin i sin r 100
a b X b a = x =1 = 𝐷𝑖𝑜𝑝𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑠
𝑓(𝑖𝑛cm)
sin r sin i
• Focal Length of Thin Lenses:
1
b = The focal length (f) of thin lenses of focal lengths f1, f2,
a
a b f3,………. placed in contact of each
• Methods to Determine Refractive Index of a Medium: other is,
1 1 1 1
Refractive index of a medium can also be determined from = + + +. . . ..
𝑓1′ 𝑓2′ 𝑓3′
the following: • Refraction Through Prism:
Velocity of light in air When a ray of monochromatic light is refracted by a prism,
(i) = the deviation δ produced by
Velocity of light in the medium
the prism is
1
(ii) = δ=i+e−A
sinc Where i = angle of incidence
Where c is the critical angle. e = angle of emergence
• Critical Angle: A = angle of the prism
The Critical angle is the angle of incidence in a denser • Angle of Deviation:
medium corresponding to which The angle of deviation δm is minimum, when ray passes
the refracted ray just grazes the surface of separation. symmetrically through the
• Apparent Depth of a Liquid: prism. The refractive index μ of the prism is
If the object be placed at the bottom of a transparent 𝐴+𝛿𝑚
𝑠𝑖𝑛( )
2
medium, say water, and viewed 𝜇= 𝐴
𝑠𝑖𝑛
2
from above, it will appear higher than it actually is. • Dispersion:
The refractive index µ in this case is: The splitting of white light into constituent colours is called
Real Depth
Refractive index of the medium, 𝜇 = the dispersion. A prism causes
Apparent Depth
• Refraction through a Single Surface: deviation as well as dispersion.
• Optical Instruments:
If 1 2 1 , 2 are refractive indices of first and second
Optical instruments are the devices which help human eye
media, R the radius of curvature of in observing highly magnified images of tiny objects, for
spherical surface, formula is detailed examination and in observing very far objects
𝜇2 𝜇1 (𝜇2 − 𝜇1 ) whether terrestrial or astronomical.
− =
𝑣 𝑢 𝑅 • Human Eye:
where u and v are the distances of the object and the
(a) It is the most familiar and complicated optical instrument
image from the centre of the
provided by nature to living beings. In this device, light
refracting surface of radius of curvature R respectively.
enters through a curved front surface, called cornea, passes
• Refraction through a Thin Lens
through the pupil – central hole in the iris.
If R1 and R2 are radii of curvature of first and second
(b) The light is focused by the eye lens on the retina.
refracting surfaces of a thin lens of
(c) The retina senses light intensity and colour and transmits
focal length f, then lens-makers formula is
1 𝜇2 −𝜇1 1 1
the electrical signals via optical nerves to the brain.
=( )( − ) (d) Brain finally processes the information.
𝑓 𝜇1 𝑅1 𝑅2

If the lens is surrounded by air, 1 = 1 and 2 =  , then • Microscope:

1 1 1
(a) A simple microscope is a short focal length convex lens.
= (𝜇 − 1) ( − ) (b) The magnifying power of a simple microscope is
𝑓 𝑅1 𝑅2
𝐷
• Thin lens formula: 𝑀 =1+
1 1 1 𝑓
= − (c) The magnifying power, M of a compound microscope is
𝑓 𝑣 𝑢
• Magnification Produced by a Lens: 𝑣 𝐷
𝑀 = 𝑀0 𝑥𝑀𝑒 = (1 + )
𝐼 𝑣 𝑢 𝑓𝑒
𝑚= = Where, Mo and Me denotes the linear magnifying of the
𝑂 𝑢
Where I is size of image and O is size of object. objective and eye lens.
• Power of a Lens: • Telescope:
The power of a lens P is its ability to deviate the ray a) The magnifying power, M of refracting telescope is
towards axis.
 𝑓0 (c) The resolving power of a telescope
𝑀=
𝑓𝑒
𝐿 = (𝑓0 − 𝑓𝑒 ) 1.22
=
Where L is the length of the telescope. d
b) For the final image is formed at the least distance of Where, λ = wavelength of light, θ = angle subtended by the
distant vision, the magnifying power is point object at the objective and d = diameter of the
𝑓0 𝐹𝑒
𝑀= (1 + objective of the telescope
𝑓𝑒 𝐷
• Wave front: For the source moving away from the observer v < v0, and
It is the locus of points having the same phase of oscillation. for the source moving
• Rays: towards the observer v < v0, . The change in frequency is
𝑣
Rays are the lines perpendicular to the wave front, which 𝛥𝑣 = 𝑣 − 𝑣0 = − 𝑣0
𝑐
show the direction of So, finally,
propagation of energy. 𝛥𝑣 𝑣
=−
• Time Taken: 𝑣0 𝑐
The time taken for light to travel from one wave front to • Coherent and Incoherent Addition of Waves:
another is the same along any (a) Two sources are coherent if they have the same
ray. frequency and a stable phase difference.
• Huygens’ Principle: (b) In this case, the total intensity I is not just the sum of
(a) According to Huygens’ Each point on the given wave individual intensities I1 and I2 due to the two sources but
front (called primary wave front) acts as a fresh source includes an interference term,
of new disturbance, called secondary wavelet, which I = I1+ I2 + 2k.E1.E2
travels in all directions with the velocity of light in the Where E1 and E2 are the electric fields at a point due to
medium. the sources.
(b) A surface touching these secondary wavelets, (c) The interference term averaged over many cycles is
tangentially in the forward direction at any instant gives zero if
the new wave front at that instant. This is called (i) The sources have different frequencies or
secondary wave front, (ii) The sources have the same frequency but no stable
• Principle of Huygens’ Construction: phase difference.
(a) It is based on the principle that every point of a wave (d) For such coherent sources,
front is a source of secondary I=I1+I2
wave front. (e) According to the superposition principle when two or
(b) The envelope of these wave fronts i.e., the surface more wave motions traveling through a medium
tangent to all the secondary wave superimpose one another, a new wave is formed in
front gives the new wave front. which resultant displacements due to the individual
• Snell’s law of refraction: waves at that instant.
𝑐1 Speed of light in first medium (f) The average of the total intensity will be
1𝜇2 = =
𝑐2 Second of light in second medium 𝐼̄ = 𝐼̄1 + 𝐼̄2 + 2√(𝐼̄1 )(𝐼̄2 ) 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙
• Refraction and Reflection of Plane Waves Using Huygens’ Where Ф is the inherent phase difference between the
Principle: two superimposing waves.
The law of reflection (i = r) and the Snell’s law of refraction (g) The significance is that the intensity due to two sources
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑖 𝑣 𝜇
= 1 = 2 = 𝜇21 of light is not equal to the sum of intensities due to each
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝑟 𝑣2 𝜇1
can be derived using the wave theory. (Here v1 and v2 are of them.
the speed of light in media 1 (h) The resultant intensity depends on the relative location
and 2 with refractive index 1 and 2 respectively). of the point from the two sources, since changing it
changes the path difference as we go from one point to
• Relation between Frequency and Speed: another.
The frequency v remains the same as light travels from one (i) As a result, the resulting intensity will vary between
medium to another. The maximum and minimum values, determined by the
speed v of a wave is given by maximum and minimum values of the cosine function.
𝜆
𝑣= These will be
𝑇
2
Where λ is the wavelength of the wave and T (=1/ v) is the 𝐼̄𝑀𝐴𝑋 = 𝐼̄1 + 𝐼̄2 + 2√(𝐼̄1 )(𝐼̄2 ) = (√𝐼̄1 + √𝐼̄2 )
period of oscillation. 2
• Doppler Effect: 𝐼̄𝑀𝐼𝑁 = 𝐼̄1 + 𝐼̄2 − 2√(𝐼̄1 )(𝐼̄2 ) = (√𝐼̄1 − √𝐼̄2 )
It is the shift in frequency of light when there is a relative • Young’s Experiment
motion between the source Two parallel and very close slits S1 and S2 (illuminated by
and the observer. The effect can be used to measure the another narrow slit) behave
speed of an approaching or like two coherent sources and produce on a screen a pattern
receding object. of dark and bright bands –
• Change in Frequency: interference fringes.
 For a point P on the screen, the path difference 1
(a) Phase difference: 𝛥𝜙 = (𝑛 + ) 2𝜋, where n is an
𝑦 𝑑 2
𝑆2 𝑃 − 𝑆2 𝑃 = 1 1 integer
𝐷1
Where d is the separation between two slits, D1 is the 1
(b) Path difference: 𝛥𝑋 = (𝑛 + ) 𝜆, where n is an integer
2
distance between the slits and the
• Diffraction due to Single Slit:
screen and y1 is the distance of the point of P from the 2𝜆
central fringe. (a) Angular spread of the central maxima =
𝑑
2𝜆𝐷
For constructive interference (bright band), the path (b) Width of the central maxima:
𝑑
difference must be an integer multiple of λ, i.e., Where D is the distance of the slit from the screen d is
𝑦1 𝑑 𝐷 𝜆
= 𝑛𝜆or𝑦1 = 𝑛 1 1 1 the slit width
𝐷1 𝑑
The separation Δy1 between adjacent bright (or dark)
fringes is, • Condition for the Minima on the either side of the Central
D1 Maxima:
y1 = d sin θ = nλ, where n = 1,2,3,…..
d
using which λ can be measured. • Relation between phase difference & path difference:
• Young’s Double Slit Interference Experiment: 2
 = .X
D 
Fringe width, w =
d Where ∆  is the phase difference & ∆X is the path
where D is the distance between the slits & the screen d is difference
the distance between the • Diffraction:
two slits (a) It refers to light spreading out from narrow holes and
• Constructive Interference: slits, and bending around corners and obstacles.
(a) Phase difference: ∆Ф = 2πn where n is an integer (b) The single-slit diffraction pattern shows the central
(b) Path difference: ∆X = nλ where n is an integer maximum (atθ = 0), zero intensity at angular separation
• Destructive interference:
• Electric Discharge: electromagnetic radiations of suitable frequency, is called
The passage of an electric current through a gas is called photoelectric effect and the emitted electrons are called
electric discharge. photoelectrons.
• Discharge Tube: • Maximum K. E of the Photoelectrons Emitted from the
A hard glass tube along with the necessary arrangement, Metal Surface:
which is used to study the passage of electric discharge Kmax = eV0 hv −Ф (Einstein’s Photoelectric equation)
through gases at low pressure, is called a discharge tube.
• Cut Off or Stopping Potential:
• Cathode Rays:
The value of the retarding potential at which the
Cathode rays are the stream of negatively charged particles,
photoelectric current becomes zero is called cut off or
electrons which are shot out at a high speed from the
stopping potential for the given frequency of the incident
cathode of a discharge tube at pressure below 0.01 mm of
radiation.
Hg.
• Work Function: • Threshold Frequency:
The minimum amount of energy required by an electron to The minimum value of the frequency of incident radiation
just escape from the metal surface is known as work function below which the photoelectric emission stops altogether is
of the metal. called threshold frequency.
W0 = Ф0 = hv0 • Laws of Photoelectric Effect:
(a) For a given metal and a radiation of fixed frequency, the
• Electron Emission:
number of photoelectrons emitted is proportional to the
The minimum amount of energy required by an electron to
intensity of incident radiation.
just escape from the metal surface is known as work function
of the metal. (b) For every metal, there is a certain minimum frequency
• Thermionic Emission: below which no photoelectrons are emitted, howsoever
Here electrons are emitted from the metal surface with the high is the intensity of incident radiation. This frequency
help of thermal energy. is called threshold frequency.
• Field or Cold Cathode Emission: (c) For the radiation of frequency higher than the threshold
Electrons are emitted from a metal surface by subjecting it to frequency, the maximum kinetic energy of the
a very high electric field. photoelectrons is directly proportional to the frequency
• Photoelectric Emission: of incident radiation and is independent of the intensity
Electrons emitted from a metal surface with the help of of incident radiation.
suitable electromagnetic (d) The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous process.
radiations. • Einstein’s Theory of Photoelectric Effect:
• Secondary Emission:
(a) Einstein explained photoelectric effect with the help of
Electrons are ejected from a metal surface by striking over its
Planck’s quantum theory.
fast-moving electrons.
(b) When a radiation of frequency ν is incident on a metal
• Forces Experienced by an Electron in Electric and Magnetic
surface, it is absorbed in the form of discrete packets of
Fields:
energy called quanta or photons.
(a) Electric field: The force FE experienced by an electron e
(c) A part of energy hν of the photon is used in removing the
in an electric field of strength (intensity) E is given by, FE
= eE electrons from the metal surface and remaining energy
(b) Magnetic field: The force experienced by an electron e is used in giving kinetic energy to the photoelectron.
in a magnetic field of strength B weber/m2 is given by (d) Einstein’s photoelectric equation is,
1
FB=Bev 𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ𝑣 − 𝑤0
2
where v is the velocity with which the electron moves in the Where wo is the work function of the metal.
electric field and the magnetic field, perpendicular to the (e) If ν0 is the threshold frequency, then w0 = hν0
direction of motion. 1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = ℎ(𝑣 − 𝑣0 )
2
(c) If the magnetic field is parallel to the direction of motion
of electron, then, FB = 0.
(f) All the experimental observations can be explained on
• Photoelectric Effect:
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from the surface the basis Einstein’s photoelectric equation.
of substances (mainly metals), when exposed to • Compton Shift:
 It is the phenomenon of increase in the wavelength of X-ray Where v1 is the terminal velocity of the drop under the influence
photons which occurs when these radiations are scattered on of electric field and gravity and E is the applied electric field.
striking an electron. The difference in the wavelength of • Photocell:
scattered and incident photons is called Compton shift, (a) It is an arrangement which converts light energy into
which is given by electric energy.
h (b) It works on the principle of photoelectric effect.
 = (1 − cos  ) (c) It is used in cinematography for the reproduction of
m0C sound.
Where Ф is the angle of scattering of the X-ray photon and • Dual Nature of Radiation:
m0 is the rest mass of the electron. Light has dual nature. It manifests itself as a wave in
• Charge and Mass of an Electron by Thompson’s Method: diffraction, interference, polarization, etc., while it shows
(a) J. J. Thomson devised an experiment to determine the particle nature in photoelectric effect, Compton scattering,
velocity (v) and the ratio of the charge (e) to the mass etc.
• Dual Nature of Matter:
e
(m) i.e., of cathode rays. (a) As there is complete equivalence between matter (mass)
m and radiation (energy) and the principle of symmetry is
(b) In this method, electric field E and magnetic field B always obeyed, de Broglie suggested that moving
are applied on the cathode rays. particles like protons, neutrons, electrons, etc., should
(c) In the region where they are applied perpendicular to be associated with waves known as de Broglie waves and
each other and to the direction of motion of cathode their wavelength is called de Broglie wavelength.
rays, Force due to electric field, FE = Force due to (b) The de Broglie wavelength of a particle of mass m
magnetic field FB, moving with velocity v is given by,
E h h
eE = Bev  V = = =
B p mv
Also, Where h is Planck’s constant.
e E V /d Vx • Davison and Germer Experiment:
= 2 = 2 = 2 This experiment help to confirm the existence of de Broglie
m B R B R B lLd
waves associated with electrons.
Where V = Potential difference between the two electrodes
• De Broglie Wavelength of an Electron:
(i.e., P and Q), d = distance between the two electrodes, R =
The wavelength associated with an electron bean
radius of circular arc in the presence of magnetic field B, x =
accelerated through a potential.
shift of the electron beam on the screen, l = length of the field
h 12.3 0
and L = distance between the centre of the field and the = =
screen. 2meV V 𝐴
• Milliken’s Oil Drop Method: • de Broglie wavelength associated with the particle of
(a) This method helps to determine the charge on the momentum p is,
ℎ ℎ
electron. 𝜆= =
𝑝 𝑚𝑣
(b) Let ρ be the density of oil, σ is the density of the medium 1.22
𝜆= 𝑛𝑚
in which oil drop moves and η the coefficient of viscosity √𝑉

of the medium, then the radius r of the drop is Where V is the magnitude of accelerating potential.
9 𝜂𝑉0
• Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle:
𝑟=√ ∆x.∆p ≈ h / 2π
2 (𝜌−𝜎)𝑔

Where v0 is the terminal velocity of the drop under the effect Where ∆x is uncertainty in position & ∆p is uncertainty in
of gravity alone. momentum
(c) At the terminal velocity v0, the force due to viscosity • Electron Microscope:
becomes equal to the electric weight of the body. (a) It is a device which makes use of accelerated electron
(d) The charge on oil drop is beams to study very minute objects like viruses,
18𝜋𝜂(𝑉1 +𝑉0 𝜂𝑉0 microbes and the crystal structure of solids.
𝑞= √2(𝜌−𝜎)𝑔 (b) It has a magnification of ~105
𝐸
• Thomson’s Model of an Atom: (b) The shape of the trajectory of the scattered alpha-particle
An atom consists of positively charged matter in which depends on the impact parameter b and the nature of the
the negatively charged electrons are uniformly potential field.
embedded like plums in a pudding. This model could not (c) Rutherford deduced the following relationship between
explain scattering of alpha-particles through thin foils and the impact parameter b and the scattering angle θ:
hence discarded.

• Rutherford’s Model of an Atom: Ze 2 cot
1 2
Geiger and Marsden in their experiment on scattering of b= .
alpha-particles found that most of the alpha-particles 4 0 E
passed undeviated through thin foils but some of them
 2
were scattered through very large angles. Ze 2 cot
1 2
From the results of these experiments, Rutherford =
proposed the following model of an atom: 4 0 1 2
mv
(a) An atom consists of a small and massive central core in 2
which the entire positive charge and almost the whole • Quantization or Discretisation:
mass of the atom are concentrated. This core is called the The quantization or discretisation of a physical quantity
nucleus. means that it cannot very continuously to have any
(b) The nucleus occupies a very small space as compared to arbitrary value but can change only discontinuously to
the size of the atom. take certain specific values.
(c) The atom is surrounded by a suitable number of electros • Bohr’s Model for the Hydrogen Atom:
so that their total negative charge is equal to the total Basic postulates:
positive charge on the nucleus and the atom as a whole is (a) Nuclear concept:
electrically neutral. An atom consists of a small massive central called nucleus
(d) The electrons revolve around the nucleus in various orbits around which planetary electrons revolve. The centripetal
just as planets revolve around the sun. force required for their rotation is provided by the
(e) The centripetal force required for their revolution is electrostatic attraction between the electrons and the
provided by the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus.
electrons and the nucleus. (b) Quantum condition:
• Draw-back of Rutherford Model: Of all the possible circular orbits allowed by the classical
This model could not explain in stability of the atom theory, the electrons are permitted to circulate only in
because according to classical electromagnetic theory the such orbits in which the angular momentum of an
electron revolving around the nucleus must continuously electron is an integral multiple of h/2π , h being Planck’s
radiate energy revolving around the nucleus must constant.
continuously radiate energy in the form of
nh
electromagnetic radiate energy in the form of L = mvr = , n = 1, 2,3.....
electromagnetic radiation and hence it should fall into the 2
nucleus. where n is called principal quantum number.
• Distance of Closest Approach: (c) Stationary orbits:
When an alpha-particle of mass m and velocity v moves While revolving in the permissible orbits, an electron does
directly towards a nucleus of atomic number Z, its initial not radiate energy. These non-radiating orbits are called
energy E, which is just the kinetic energy K gets stationary orbits.
completely converted into potential energy U at stopping (d) Frequency condition:
point. This stopping point happens to be at a distance of An atom can emit or absorb radiation in the form of
closest approach d from the nucleus. discrete energy photons only, when an electron jumps
1 1 2𝑒𝑍𝑒 2𝑍𝑒 2 2𝑍𝑒 2 from a higher to a lower orbit or from a lower to a higher
𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = = 𝑑=
2 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑑 4𝜋𝜀0 𝑘 orbit. If E1 and E2 are the energies associated with these
Hence, permitted orbits then the frequency V of the emitted
2𝑍𝑒 2
𝑑= absorbed radiation is,
4𝜋𝜀0 𝐾
hv = E2 – E1
• Impact Parameter:
(e) Radius of the orbit of an electron in hydrogen atom is,
(a) It is defined as the perpendicular distance of the velocity
of the alpha-particle from the central of the nucleus, e2
r=
when it is far away from the atom. 4 0 mv 2
(f) Kinetic energy K & electrostatic potential energy U of the 2𝜋 2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑒 2 1 1
electron in hydrogen atom: 𝑣= 2
[ 2 − 2]
ℎ 𝑛1 𝑛2
1 2 e2 • Different Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom:
K= mv = These are as follows:
2 8 0 r
a) Lyman Series. Here n2 = 2, 3, 4,…..and n1 = 1. This series
e2 lies in the ultraviolet region.
U =− b) Balmer Series. Here n2 = 3, 4, 5,…. and n1 = 2. This series
4 0 r
lies in the visible region.
(g) Total energy E of the electron in hydrogen atom: c) Paschen Series. Here n2 = 4, 5, 6,….. and n1 = 3. This
e2 series lies in the infrared region.
E = K +U = − d) Brackett Series. Here n2 = 5, 6, 7,….. and n1 = 4. This
8 0 r
series lies in the infrared region.
(h) Speed of an electron in the nth orbit is, e) P fund Series. Here n2 = 6, 7, 8,…. and n1 = 5. This series
2 ke2 c 1 c lies in the infrared region.
v= = . = .
nh n 137 n • Excitation Energy:
2 ke2 It is defined as the energy required by an electron of an
Where  = is fine structure constant. atom to jump from its ground state to any one of its
ch existed states.
(i) Energy of an electron in nth orbit is, • Ionization Energy:
2𝜋2 𝑚𝑘 2 𝑍 2 𝑒 4 13.6
𝐸𝑛 = = − 2 𝑒𝑉 It is defined as the energy required to remove an electron
𝑛 2 ℎ2 𝑛
• Failure of Bohr’s Model: from an atom, i.e., the energy required to take an electron
(a) This model is applicable only to hydrogen-like atoms and from its ground state to the outermost orbit (n = ∞ )
fails in case of higher atoms. • Excitation Potential:
(b) It could not explain the fine structure of the spectral lines It is the accelerating potential which gives sufficient
in the spectrum of hydrogen atom. energy to a bombarding electron so to excite the target
• Energy Level Diagram: atom by raising one of its electrons from an inner to and
It is a diagram in which the energies of the different outer orbit.
stationary states of an atom are represented by parallel • Ionization Potential:
horizontal lines, drawn according to some suitable energy It is the accelerating potential which gives to bombarding
scale. electron the sufficient energy to an outer orbit.
• Spectral Series of Hydrogen Atom: • De Broglie’s Hypothesis:
Whenever an electron in hydrogen atom makes a The electrons having a wavelength λ = h/mv gave an
transition from a higher energy level n2 to a lower energy explanation for Bohr’s quantized orbits by bringing in the
level n1, the difference of energy appears in the form of a wave particle duality. The orbits correspond to circular
photon of frequency V is given by, standing waves in which the circumference of the orbit
equals a whole number of wavelengths.
• Atomic Number: 4
He +94 Be →10 n +12
2 1 C
The number of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic
(c) A free neutron decays spontaneously, with a half- life
number. It is denoted by Z.
of about 900 s, into a proton, electron and an
• Mass number:
antineutrino.
The total number of protons and neutrons present in a
nucleus is called the mass number of the element. It is
1
0 n →11 H +0−1 e + v
denoted by A. • Size of the Nucleus:
• No. of Protons, Electrons, nucleons and Neutrons in (a) It is found that a nucleus of mass number A has a
an Atom: radius
(a) Number of protons in an atom = Z a. R = R0A1/3
(b) Number of electrons in an atom = Z Where, R0 = 1.2 x 10-15 m
(c) Number of nucleons in an atom = A (b) This implies that the volume of the nucleus, which is
(d) Number of neutrons in an atom = N = A – Z. proportional to R3 is proportional A.
• Nuclear Mass: • Density of the Nucleus:
The total mass of the protons and neutrons present in a Density of nucleus is constant; independent of A, for all
nucleus is called the nuclear mass. nuclei and density of nuclear matter is approximately 2.3
• Nuclide: x 1017 kg m−3 which is very large as compared to ordinary
A nuclide is a specific nucleus of an atom characterized matter, say water which is 103 kg m-3.
by its atomic number Z and mass number A. It is • Mass-Energy equivalence:
represented as, ZAA Einstein proved that it is necessary to treat mass as
another form of energy. He gave the mass-energy
Where X = chemical symbol of the element, Z = atomic
equivalence relation as,
number and A = mass number
E = mc2
• Isotopes: Where m is the mass and c is the velocity of light in
(a) The atoms of an element which have the same atomic vacuum.
number but different mass number are called • Mass Defect:
isotopes. The difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and the
(b) Isotopes have similar chemical properties but sum of the rest masses of its constituent nucleons is
different physical properties. called its mass defect. It is given by,
• Isobars: ∆m = [Zmp + (A− Z)mn] − m
The atoms having the same mass number but different • Binding Energy:
atomic number are called isobars. (a) It may be defined as the energy required to break a
• Isotones: nucleus into its constituent protons and neutrons
The nuclides having the same number of neutrons are and to separate them to such a large distance that
called isotones. they may not interact with each other.
• Isomers: (b) It may also be defined as the surplus energy which the
These are nuclei with same atomic number and same nucleus gives up by virtue of their attractions which they
mass number but in different energy states. become bound together to form a nucleus.
• Electron Volt: (c) The binding energy of a nucleus ZXA is,
It is defined as the energy acquired by an electron when B.E. = [Zmp + (A− Z)mn – m]c2
it is accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt • Binding Energy per Nucleon:
and is denoted by eV. It is average energy required to extract one nucleon from
• Atomic Mass Unit: the nucleus.
(a) It is
1
th of the actual mass of a carbon atom of It is obtained by dividing the binding energy of a nucleus
12 by its mass number.
isotope 6C12. It is denoted by amu or just by u. 𝐵.𝐸 [𝑍𝑚𝑝 +(𝐴−𝑍)𝑚𝑛 −]𝑐 2
(b) 1 amu = 1.660565 X 10-27 kg 𝐵̄ = =
𝐴 𝐴
(c) The energy equivalence of 1 amu is 1 amu = 931 MeV • Nuclear Forces:
• Discovery of Neutrons: (a) These are the strong in attractive forces which hold
(a) Neutrons were discovered by Chadwick in 1932. protons and neutrons together in a tiny nucleus.
(b) When beryllium nuclei are bombarded by alpha- (b) These are short range forces which operate over very
particles, highly penetrating radiations are emitted, short distance of about 2 – 3 fm of separation
which consists of neutral particles, each having mass between any two nucleons.
nearly that of a proton. These particles were called (c) The nuclear force does not depend on the charge of
neutrons. the nucleon.
• Nuclear Density: • Half-life:
The density of a nucleus is independent of the size of the The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time in
nucleus and is given by, which one-half of its nuclei will disintegrate. It is
Nuclear mass inversely proportional to the decay constant of the
𝜌𝑣 =
Nuclear volume
𝑚𝑣 radioactive substance.
=4 = 2.9𝑥10 kg𝑚−3
17
𝜋𝑅 2 0.693
•
3
Radioactivity:
T1/2 =

(a) It is the phenomenon of spontaneous disintegration • Mean Life:
of the nucleus of an atom with the emission of one or The mean-life of a radioactive sample is defined as the
more radiations like α -particles, β -particles or γ - ratio of the combined age of all the atoms and the total
rays. number of atoms in the given sample. It is given by,
(b) The substances which spontaneously emit
T1/2
penetrating radiation are called radioactive = = 1.44T1/2
substances. 0.693
• Radioactivity Displacement Law: • Rate of Decay or Activity of a Radioactive Sample:
It states that, It is defined as the number of radioactive disintegrations
(a) When a radioactive nucleus emits an α -particle, taking place per second in a given sample. It is expressed
atomic number decreases by 2 and mass number as,
decreases by 4.  dN 
(b) When a radioactive nucleus emits β -particle, its R(t ) =   =  N (t ) =  N (0)e− t
atomic number increases by 1 but mass number  dt 
remains same. • Curie:
(c) The emission of a γ -particle does not change the (a) It is the SI unit of decay.
mass number or the atomic number of the (b) One curie is the decay rate of 3.7 X 1010
radioactive nucleus. The γ -particle emission by a disintegrations per second.
radioactive nucleus lowers its energy state. • Rutherford:
• Alpha Decay: One Rutherford is the decay rate of 106 disintegrations
It is the process of emission of an α -particle from a per second.
radioactive nucleus. It may be represented as, • Natural Radioactivity:
A
X→ A− 4
Y + He + Q
4 It is the phenomenon of the spontaneous emission of-α, β
Z Z −2 2
and γ radiations from the nuclei of naturally occurring
• Beta Decay:
isotopes.
It is the process of emission of an electron from a
• Artificial or Induced Radioactivity:
radioactive nucleus. It may be represented as,
𝐴 𝐴 0 It is the phenomenon of inducing radioactivity in certain
𝑍 𝑋 →𝑍+ 1 𝑌+− 1 𝑒 + 𝑣̄ stable nuclei by bombarding them by suitable high
• Gamma Decay: energy sub atomic particles.
It is the process of emission of a γ -ray photon during the • Nuclear Reaction:
radioactive disintegration of a nucleus. It can be It is a reaction which involves the change of stable nuclei
represented as, of one element into the nucleus of another element.
A
Z X → A
Z X + • Nuclear Fission:
(Excited State) (Ground State) It is the process in which a heavy nucleus when excited
• Radioactive Decay Law: gets split into two smaller nuclei of nearly comparable
It states that the number of nuclei disintegrated of masses. For example,
undecayed radioactive nuclei present at that instant. It 235
92 U +10 n →141
56 Ba +36 Kr + 30 n + Q
92 1

may be written as, • Nuclear Reactor:

N(t) = N(0)e−λt It is a device in which a nuclear chain reaction is initiated,
Where N(0) is the number of nuclei at t = 0 and λ is maintained and controlled.
disintegration constant. • Nuclear Fusion:
• Decay or disintegration Constant: It is the process of fusion of two smaller nuclei into a
It may be defined as the reciprocal or the time interval in heavier nucleus with the liberation of large amount of
which the number of active nuclei in a given radioactive energy.
sample reduces to 36.8% of its initial value.
• Intrinsic Semiconductor: I = eA(ne ve + nh vh)
The pure semiconductors in which the electrical where ne and nh are the electron and hole densities,
conductivity is totally governed by the electrons excited and ve and vh are their drift velocities, respectively.
from the valence band to the conduction band and in which (b) If µh are the electron and hole mobilities, then
no impurity atoms are added to increase their conductivity the conductivity of the semiconductor will be,
are called intrinsic semiconductors and their conductivity is ρ = e(ne µe + nh µh) and the resistivity will be,
called intrinsic conductivity. Electrical conduction in pure 1
=
e ( ne  + nh h )
semiconductors occurs by means of electron-hole pairs. In
an intrinsic semiconductor,
ne = n h = n i (c) The conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor
where ne = the free electron density in conduction band, nh increases exponentially with temperature as,
= the hole density in valence band, and n i = the intrinsic  Eg 
carrier concentration.  =  0 exp  − 
• Extrinsic Semiconductors:  2k BT 
A Semiconductor doped with suitable impurity atoms so as • Forward Biasing of a pn-junction:
to increase its conductivity is called an extrinsic If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the p-
semiconductor. side and the negative terminal to the n-side, then the pn-
• Types of Extrinsic Semiconductors: junction is said to be forward biased. Both electrons and
Extrinsic semiconductors are of two types holes move towards the junction. A current, called forward
i) n-type semiconductors current, flows across the junction. Thus, a pn-junction offers
ii) p-type semiconductors a low resistance when it is forward biased.
• n-type semiconductors: • Reverse Biasing of a pn-junction:
The pentavalent impurity atoms are called donors because If the positive terminal of a battery is connected to the n-
they donate electrons to the host crystal and the side and negative terminal to the p-side, then pn-junction is
semiconductor doped with donors is called n-type said to be reverse biased. The majority charge carriers move
semiconductor. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the away from the junction. The potential barrier offers high
majority charge carriers and holes are the minority charge resistance during the reverse bias. However, due to the
carriers. Thus, minority charge carriers a small current, called reverse or
ne >> nh leakage current flows in the opposite direction. Thus,
• p-type semiconductors: junction diode has almost a unidirectional flow of current.
The trivalent impurity atoms are called acceptors because • Action of a transistor:
they create holes which can accept electrons from the When the emitter-base junction of an npn-transistor is
nearby bonds. A semiconductor doped with acceptor type forward biased, the electrons are pushed towards the base.
impurities is called a p-type semiconductor. In p-type As the base region is very thin and lightly doped, most of the
semiconductor, holes are the majority carriers and electrons cross over to the reverse biased collector. Since
electrons are the minority charge carriers Thus, few electrons and holes always recombine in the base
nh >> ne
region, so the collector current Ic is always slightly less then
• Holes:
emitter current IE.
The vacancy or absence of electron in the bond of a
IE = I C + I B
covalently bonded crystal is called a hole. A hole serves as a
Where IB is the base current.
positive charge carrier.
• Three Configurations of a Transistor:
• Mobility:
A transistor can be used in one of the following three
(a) The drift velocity acquired by a charge carrier in a unit
configurations:
electric field is called its electrical mobility and is
(a) Common-base (CB) circuit.
denoted by µ.
(b) Common-emitter (CE) circuit.
Vd
= (c) Common-collector (CC) circuit.
E • Current Gains of a Transistor:
(b) The mobility of an electron in the conduction band is Usually low current gains are defined:
greater than that of the hole (or electron) in the valence (a) Common base current amplification factor or ac current
band. gain α:
• Electrical conductivity of a Semiconductor: It is the ratio of the small change in the collector current
(a) If a potential difference V is applied across a conductor to the small change in the emitter current when the
of length L and area of cross-section A, then the total collector-base voltage is kept constant.
current I through it is given by,
 𝛿𝐼𝐶 It is a shorthand method of describing the function of a logic
𝛼=[ ]
𝛿𝐼𝐸 𝑉 gate in the form of an equation or an expression. It also
𝐶𝐵=Constant
(b) Common emitter current amplification factor or ac current relates all possible combination of the inputs of a logic gate
gain β: to the corresponding outputs.
It is the ratio of the small change in the collector current to • Positive and Negative Logic:
the small change in the base current when the collector If in a system, the higher voltage level represents 1 and the
emitter voltage is kept constant. lower voltage level represent 0, the system is called a
𝛿𝐼𝐶 positive logic. If the higher voltage represents 0 and the
𝛽=[ ] lower voltage level represents 1, then the system is called a
𝛿𝐼𝐵 𝑉
𝐶𝐸=Constant negative logic.
• Relations between α and β: • OR Gate:
The current gains α and β are related as, An OR gate can have any number of inputs but only one
output. It gives higher output (1) if either input A or B or
 
= and = both are high (1), otherwise the output is low (0).
1+  1+  A+B=Y
• Transistor as an amplifier: Which is read as ‘A or B equals Y’.
An amplifier is a circuit which is used for increasing the • AND gate:
voltage, current or power of alternating form. A transistor An AND gate can have any number of inputs but only one
can be used as an amplifier. output. It gives a high output (1) if inputs A and B are both
high (1), or else the output is low (0). It is described by the
• AC Current Gain: Boolean expression.
AC current gain is defined as, A. B = Y
Which is read as ‘A and B equals Y’.
 I 
 ac or Ai =  C  • NOT Gate:
  I B V CE = constant A NOT gate is the simplest gate, with one input and one
• DC Current Gain: output. It gives as high output (1) if the input A is low (0),
DC current gain is defined as, and vice versa.
Whatever the input is, the NOT gate inverts it. It is described
 IC 
 dc =   by the Boolean expression:
 I B V 𝐴̅ = Y
CE = constant
Which is read as ‘not A equal Y’.
• Voltage Gain of an Amplifier:
• NAND (NOT+AND) gate:
It is defined as,
𝑉 𝐴smallchangeinoutputvoltage It is obtained by connecting the output of an AND gate to
𝐴𝑣 = 0 = the input of a NOT gate. Its output is high if both inputs A
𝑉𝑖 𝐴smallchangeininputvoltage

V and B are not high. If is described by the Boolean expression.

AV = CE A.B = Y or AB = Y
 VBE Which is read as ‘A and B negated equals Y’.
Rout • NOR (NOT+OR) Gate:
AV =  ac . = Ai . Ar It is obtained by connecting the output of an OR gate to the
Rin input of a NOT gate. Its output is high if neither input A nor
i.e., Voltage gain = Current gain X Resistance gain input B is high. It is described by the Boolean expression.
• Power Gain of an Amplifier: A+B=Y
It is defined as, Which is read as ‘A and B negated equals Y’.
Outputpower • XOR or Exclusive OR gate. The XOR gate gives a high output
𝐴𝑝 = = current x voltage gain
Inputpower if either input A or B is high but not when both A and B are
or high or low. It can be obtained by using a combination of
Rout two NOT gates, two AND gates and one OR gate. It is
A p = Ai . Av =  ac2 . described by Boolean expression:
Rin Y = AB + AB
• Logic Gate: The XOR gate is also known as difference gate because its
A logic gate is a digital circuit that has one or more inputs output is high when the inputs are different.
but only one output. It follows a logical relationship • Integrated Circuits:
between input and output voltage. The concept of fabricating an entire circuit (consisting of
• Truth Table: many passive components like R and C and active devices
This table shows all possible input combination and the like diode and transistor) on a small single block (or chip) of
corresponding output for a logic gate. a semiconductor has revolutionized the electronics
• Boolean Expression: technology. Such a circuit is known as Integrated Circuit (IC).