Gradient vector, Divergence and Curl

A vector ⃗a in a space is denoted as

⃗a = a1 iˆ + a2 jˆ + a3 k̂.

The gradient vector (or gradient) of f (x, y ) is the vector

⃗ (x, y ) = ∂f iˆ + ∂f j.
∇f ˆ
∂x ∂y

The value of the gradient vector obtained by evaluating the partial

derivatives at a point P(x0 , y0 ) is written ∇f
⃗ (x0 , y0 ) or ∇f
⃗ |P .

Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 47 / 87

Find ∇f
⃗ at the given point.
1 f (x, y , z) = x 2 + y 2 − 2z 2 + z ln x , (1, 1, 1).
2 f (x, y , z) = (x 2 + y 2 + z 2 )−1/2 + ln(xyz), (−1, 2, −2).

The divergence of a vector eld F⃗ = M iˆ + N jˆ at the point (x, y ) is

∂M ∂N
divF⃗ = + .
∂x ∂y

Find the divergence of the following vector eld:

1 F⃗ (x, y ) = cx iˆ + cy j.
ˆ

2 j.
−y ˆ
2 F⃗ (x, y ) = x 2 +y 2
x ˆ
i + x 2 +y

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 The curl of a vector eld F⃗ = M iˆ + N jˆ + P k̂ is dened as
     
∂P ∂N ∂M ∂P ∂N ∂M
curlF⃗ = − iˆ + − jˆ + − k̂.
∂y ∂z ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y

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Q: Find the curl of F = (x 2 − z)i + xe z j + xyk .
Line integrals of scalar functions

The line integral of a continuous function f over a curve C is

Z
f (x, y , z)ds, where s is denoted as arc length.
C
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How to evaluate the line integral of f over C
To nd the line integral of f over a curve C we will use the following
two step:
1 First we have to know parametric representation of C

r (t) = g (t)i + h(t)j + k(t)k, a ≤ t ≤ b.

2 Then
Z Z b
f (x, y , z)ds = f (g (t), h(t), k(t))|v (t)|dt,
C a
r 2
dx 2 dz 2

where |v (t)| = dy
dt , x = g (t), y = h(t)



dt + dt +
and z = k(t).

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Example
Q. Integrate f (x, y , z) = x − 3y 2 + z over the line segment C joining the
origin (0, 0, 0) to the point (1, 1, 1).
1 r (t) = ti + tj + tk where 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.
√
2 |v (t)| = 3 and
Z Z 1 √ √ Z 1
f (x, y , z)ds = f (t, t, t) 3 dt = 3 (2t − 3t 2 )dt = 0.
C 0 0
√
Q. Find the line integral of f (x, y , z) = 2xy + z over the helix
r (t) = cos ti + sin tj + tk , 0 ≤ t ≤ π .

Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 52 / 87

 √
Q. Integrate f (x, y , z) = x + y − z 2 over the path from (0, 0, 0) to
(1, 1, 1) (see accompanying gure) given by

C1 : r (t) = ti + t 2 j, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1
C2 : r (t) = i + j + tk, 0 ≤ t ≤ 1

Soln: f (x, y , z)ds .

R R R
C1 ∪C2 f (x, y , z)ds = C1 f (x, y , z)ds + C2

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Vector eld

A vector eld is a function that assigns a vector to each point in its

domain. A vector eld on a three dimensional space might have a
formula like:

F⃗ (x, y , z) = M(x, y , z)iˆ + N(x, y , z)jˆ + P(x, y , z)k̂.

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 Let F⃗ be a vector eld with continuous components dened along a
smooth curve C parametrized by ⃗r (t), a ≤ t ≤ b. Then the line
integral of F⃗ along the curve C is
Z Z   Z
d⃗r
F⃗ · T
⃗ ds = ⃗
F· ds = F⃗ · d⃗r .
C C ds C

Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 55 / 87

How to evaluate F⃗ · T⃗ ds
R
C

To nd the line integral of F⃗ over a curve C we will use the following
two step:
1 First we have to know parametric representation of C

r (t) = g (t)iˆ + h(t)jˆ + k(t)k̂, a ≤ t ≤ b.

2 Then Z Z b
d⃗r
F⃗ · T
⃗ ds = F⃗ (⃗r (t)) · dt,
C a dt
where d⃗
r
dt = dt i + dt j + dt k̂ .
dg ˆ dh ˆ dk

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Example

Evaluate F⃗ · d⃗r , where F⃗ = z iˆ + xy jˆ − y 2 k̂ along the curve C given by

R
C √
⃗r (t) = t 2 iˆ + t jˆ + t k̂ , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1.

Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 57 / 87

Example

Evaluate F⃗ · d⃗r , where F⃗ = z iˆ + xy jˆ − y 2 k̂ along the curve C given by

R
C √
⃗r (t) = t 2 iˆ + t jˆ + t k̂ , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1. (Answer: 17/20)

Let F⃗ be the force eld over C = ⃗r (t). The work done to move an
object from the point ⃗r (a) to ⃗r (b) along C is
Z
W = F⃗ · T
⃗ ds.
C

Example: Find the work done by the force eld

F⃗ = (y − x 2 )iˆ+ (z − y 2 )jˆ+ (x − z 2 )k̂ in moving an object along the curve
⃗r (t) = t iˆ + t 2 jˆ + t 3 k̂ , 0 ≤ t ≤ 1, from (0, 0, 0) to (1, 1, 1).

Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 57 / 87

Circulation for velocity elds

If ⃗r (t) parametrizes a smooth curve C in the domain of a continuous

velocity eld F⃗ , the ow along the curve from A = ⃗r (a) to B = ⃗r (b)
is Z
Flow = F⃗ · T⃗ ds.
C
The integral is called a ow integral. If the curve starts and ends
at the same point, so that A = B the ow is called the circulation
around the curve.

Example 1: A uid's velocity eld is F⃗ = x iˆ+ z jˆ + y k̂ . Find the ow along

the helix ⃗r (t) = cos t iˆ + sin t jˆ + t k̂ , 0 ≤ t ≤ π2 .
Example 2: Find the circulation of the eld F⃗ = (x − y )iˆ + x jˆ around the
circle ⃗r (t) = cos t iˆ + sin t jˆ, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π .

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 If C is a smooth simple closed curve in the domain of a continuous
vector eld F⃗ = M(x, y )iˆ + N(x, y )jˆ in the plane, and if n̂ is the
outward pointing unit normal vector on C , the
Z I
Flux of F⃗ across C = F⃗ · n̂ds = Mdy − Ndx.
C C

The integral can be evaluated from any smooth parametrization x =

g (t) and y = h(t), a ≤ t ≤ b that traces C counterclockwise exactly
once.

Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 59 / 87

Example: Find the ux of F⃗ = (x − y )iˆ + x jˆ across the circle x 2 + y 2 = 1
in the xy -plane.
⃗r (t) = cos t iˆ + sin t jˆ, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2π , x = cos t and y = sin t .
dx = − sin t dt and dy = cos t dt , M = x − y = cos t − sin t and
N = cos t .
R 2π
C F · n̂ds = 0 ((cos t − sin t) cos t − cos t(− sin t))dt = π .
⃗
R

Questions: Exercise in 16.2: For computing gradient 2, 3, 5 and 6. For line

integrals 7, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 23, 25 and 26. For the work done,
circulation and ux 28, 29, 30, 32, 35, 36, 37, 41, 43, 53 and 60.

Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 60 / 87

Path independence and Potential function
Let F⃗ be a vector eld dened on an open region D in space,
and suppose that for any two points A and B in D the line
integral C F⃗ · d⃗r along a path C from A to B in D is the same
R

over all paths from A to B . Then the integral C F⃗ · d⃗r is path

R

independent in D and the eld F⃗ is conservative on D .

If F is a vector eld dened on D and F = ∇f ⃗ for some scalar
function f on D , then f is called a potential function for F⃗ .

Theorem (Conservative Fields are Gradient Fields)

Let F⃗ = M iˆ+ N jˆ + P k̂ be a vector eld whose components are continuous
throughout an open connected region D in space. Then F⃗ is conservative if
and only if F⃗ = ∇f
⃗ for a dierentiable function f .

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Theorem (Fundamental Theorem of Line Integrals)
Let C be a smooth curve joining the point A to the point B in the plane or
in space and parametrized by ⃗r (t). Let f be a dierentiable function with a
continuou gradient vector F⃗ = ∇f⃗ on a domain D containing C . Then
Z
F⃗ · d⃗r = f (B) − f (A).
C

Example: Find the work done by the conservative eld

⃗ , where f (x, y , z) = xyz , in moving an object
F⃗ = yz iˆ + xz jˆ + xy k̂ = ∇f
along any smooth curve C joining the point A(−1, 3, 9) to B(1, 6, −4).
Z
Work done = F⃗ · d⃗r = f (B) − f (A) = f (1, 6, −4) − f (−1, 3, 8) = 3.
C

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 1 The domain D is said to be connected if any two points in D
can be joined by a smooth curve that lies in the region.
2 The domain D to be simply connected if the every loop in D
can be contracted to a point in D without ever leaving D .

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Test for Conservative Fields

Theorem (Component Test for Conservative Fields)

Let F⃗ = M(x, y , z)iˆ + N(x, y , z)jˆ + P(x, y , z)k̂ be a eld on an open
simply connected domain whose component functions have continuous rst
partial derivatives. Then, F⃗ is conservative if and only if
∂P ∂N ∂P ∂M ∂M ∂N
= , = and = .
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x

1 Show that F⃗ = (e x cos y + yz)iˆ + (xz − e x sin y )jˆ + (xy + z)k̂ is

conservative over its natural domain and nd a potential function for
it.
2 Show that F⃗ = (2x − 3)iˆ − z jˆ + (cos z)k̂ is not conservative.

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Test for Conservative Fields: Loop property
Theorem
The following statements are equivalent.
F⃗ · d⃗r = 0 around every loop (that is, closed curve C ) in D .
H
1
C
2 The eld F⃗ is conservative on D .

Example: Show that the vector eld

−y ˆ x
F⃗ = i+ 2 jˆ + 0k̂
x2
+y 2 x + y2
satises the equations in the Component Test, but is not conservative over
its natural domain. Explain why this is possible.
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Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 66 / 87
Component Test for Exactness of Mdx + Ndy + Pdz

Any expression M(x, y , z)dx + N(x, y , z)dy + P(x, y , z)dz is a dif-

ferential form. A dierential form is exact on a domain D in space if
∂f ∂f ∂f
Mdx + Ndy + Pdz = dx + dy + dz = df ,
∂x ∂y ∂z

for some scalar function f throughout D .

Theorem
The dierential form Mdx + Ndy + Pdz is exact on an open simply connected domain if
and only if
∂P ∂N ∂P ∂M ∂M ∂N
= , = and = .
∂y ∂z ∂x ∂z ∂y ∂x
This is equivalent to saying that the eld F = M i + N j + P k̂ is conservative.
⃗ ˆ ˆ

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Show that ydx + xdy + 4dz is exact and evaluate the integral
Z (2,3,−1)
ydx + xdy + 4dz
(1,1,1)

over any path from (1, 1, 1) to (2, 3, −1). (Ans: -3)

Exercise 16.3: 1, 2, 6, 7 ad 10.

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Green's Theorem in the plane
The circulation density of a vector eld F⃗ = M iˆ + N jˆ at the point
(x, y ) is the scalar expression

∂N ∂M
− .
∂x ∂y

This expression is also called the k̂ -component of the curl, denoted

by (curlF⃗ ) · k̂ .

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Green's Theorem (Circulation-Curl or Tangential Form)

Theorem
Let C be a piecewise smooth, simple closed curve enclosing a region R in
the plane. Let F⃗ = M iˆ + N jˆ be a vector eld with M and N having
continuous rst partial derivatives in an open region containing R . Then
the counterclockwise circulation of F⃗ around C equals the double integral
of (curlF⃗ ) · k̂ over R .
I I Z Z  
∂N ∂M
F⃗ · T
⃗ ds = M dx + N dy = − dxdy .
C C R ∂x ∂y

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Green's Theorem (Flux-Divergence or Normal Form)

Theorem
Let C be a piecewise smooth, simple closed curve enclosing a region R in
the plane. Let F⃗ = M iˆ + N jˆ be a vector eld with M and N having
continuous rst partial derivatives in an open region containing R . Then
the outward ux of F⃗ across C equals the double integral of div F⃗ over the
region R enclosed by C .
I I Z Z  
∂M ∂N
F⃗ · n̂ ds = M dy − N dx = + dxdy .
C C R ∂x ∂y

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Exercise Set 16.4: 1, 3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15, 16, 19, 20, 23, 24, 27, 29,
30, 31, 33, 34, 35 and 36.

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Parametrization of surfaces
We have dened curves in the plane in three dierent ways:
1 Explicit form: y = f (x)
2 Implicit form: F (x, y ) = 0
3 Parametric vector form: ⃗r (t) = f (t)iˆ + g (t)jˆ, a ≤ t ≤ b.

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Parametrization of surfaces
We have dened curves in the plane in three dierent ways:
1 Explicit form: y = f (x)
2 Implicit form: F (x, y ) = 0
3 Parametric vector form: ⃗r (t) = f (t)iˆ + g (t)jˆ, a ≤ t ≤ b.
We have analogous denitions of surfaces in space:
1 Explicit form: z = f (x, y )
2 Implicit form: F (x, y , z) = 0.

Here ⃗r (u, v ) = f (u, v )iˆ + g (u, v )jˆ + h(u, v )k̂ is the parametrization
of the surface. The variables u and v are the parameters, and R is
the parameter domain.

Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 76 / 87

Examples

Notice that the parametrization of surface is the vector equivalent of three

parametric equations:

x = f (u, v ), y = g (u, v ), z = h(u, v ).

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Surface area

Our goal is to nd a double integral for calculating the area of a

curved surface S based on the parametrization

⃗r (u, v ) = f (u, v )iˆ + g (u, v )jˆ + h(u, v )k̂, a ≤ u ≤ b, c ≤ y ≤ d.

∂r ∂f ˆ ∂g ˆ ∂h
=
ru = i+ j+ k̂
∂u ∂u ∂u ∂u
∂r ∂f ˆ ∂g ˆ ∂h
rv = = i+ j+ k̂
∂v ∂v ∂v ∂v
Z Z Z bZ d
Area = A = |ru × rv |dA = |ru × rv | du dv .
R a c
Note dσ = |ru × rv | du dv

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Do example 5,6 from the book (pg: 1002).
Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 80 / 87
Implicit surface: The area of the surface F (x, y , z) = c over a closed and
bounded plane region R is
|∇F |
Z Z
Area = dA,
R |∇F · p|
where p = i, ˆ or k̂ is normal to R and ∇F · p ̸= 0.
ˆ j,

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Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 82 / 87
Explicit surface: Formula for the Surface Area of a Graph z = f (x, y ) is
Z Z q
Area = fx2 + fy2 + 1dx dy .
R

Exercise Set 16.5: 1, 4, 6, 9, 10, 12 , 13, 18, 20, 22, 23 and 25.

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Bikshan (GITAM University) Calculus November 28, 2025 85 / 87
Practice Example 3 and 4 (pg: 1011).

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 Let F⃗ be a vector eld in three-dimensional space with continuous
components dened over a smooth surface S having a chosen eld
of normal unit vectors n̂ orienting S . Then the surface integral of F⃗
over S is Z Z
F⃗ · n̂ dσ.
S

This integral is also called the ux of the vector eld F⃗ across S .

Practice Example 5 (pg: 1013).

Exercise Set 16.6: 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 15, 18, 19, 22, 23, 29, 39 and 40.

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