Unit 5 june 2025

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 1. Respiration
2. Muscle movement and heart
20/1/2025
3. Control of the internal environment
Part 1
4. Nervous system
Respiration

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5. Coordination

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6. Gene technology

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Class work :
1. Explain properties of ATP molecule
[Link] the two processes involved in production of ATP
[Link] the steps oxidative phosphorylation

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4,state 4 different examples of co enzymes
5. Explain the steps involved in glycolysis
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 Respiration
Why we need energy ;

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1. Cell division
2. Muscle contraction

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3. Active uptake / transport
4. Temperature regulation
5. Anabolic reactions such as photosynthesis and use to regenerate RUBP to continue Calvin cycle

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6. Used to reduce GP to GALP .

1. Structure of ATP ( universal energy currency )

iha ATP….ADP + Pi Why ATP is universal energy currency of all cells :

1. Small , water soluble and easily transported around the cell
[Link] hydrolysed ( phosphate loss) to release energy
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[Link] term store of energy
Immediate energy donor in all cells as the bond between
phosphate groups is unstable and easily broken )
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[Link] large amount of energy ( 30.5 kj / mol

5. AMP and ADP recycled to ATP , so constant supply of
ATP .
 2. Synthesis of ATP

Hydrolysis
Small
Exothermic
ATP ADP + Pi Soluble

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Condensation Easily broken

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Endothermic
30.5Kjol / mol
Glucose + oxygen ………….carbon dioxide + water + ( energy )

ADP + Pi…….ATP

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A) Substrate level phosphorylation Cristae carry the stalked particles
with ATP synthase for ATP B)Oxidative phosphorylation

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synthesis .
In mitochondrion
Matrix contains
enzymes for kreb’s Loop of DNA
cycle
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• ADP and phosphorylated compound are substrate
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• that occupy the active site of certain enzyme ….

• a phosphate group ( inorganic phosphate ) transferred from
Inter membrane space
compound to be added to ADP ..to for ATP .
Stalked particles with ATP synthase
Steps of aerobic respiration
1. Glycolysis Cytoplasm
2. Linked reaction
3. Kreb’s cycle Mitochondrion

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4. Oxidative phosphorylation

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C6H12O6 + 6O2…………….6CO2+ 6H2O+ ATP

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1. Glycolysis
1. glucose enter the cytoplasm by facilitated diffusion
[Link] …..2ATP

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• glucose + ATP ………………glucose 6 phosphate
• Glucose 6 phosphate + ATP …………….fructose 1, 6 biphosphate ( phosphorylated hexose )
3. Phosphorylated hexose split ……………..2 X TP ( 3C )
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1. 2 TP ………to be oxidesed to 2 intermediate bipshosphate + 2 NADH
2.2 intermediate biphosphate ……. ……….2 pyruvate + 4ATP
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Net 2 ATP
2 NADH
2x pyruvate 3C
 B) oxidative phosphorylation
ETC + chemiosmosis is called oxidative phosphorylation

Outer membrane

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H+
H+ H+ Electrical gradient

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4 H+ H+ Chemical gradient Inter membrane space

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e-
e-
e- 6 ATP Inner membrane

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2
e- synthase
membrane
e-e-

H+ Matrix

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1
4 Energy is used to pump the protons
( hydrogen ions ) into inter
NADH NAD
Hydrogen carrier Oxidised membrane space ( by active
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H ………..H+ + e- transport )

5 Creat proton electrochemical gradient

2 Electrons e-….pass along
electron carriers in the inner
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H+ diffuse back by facilitaed diffusion into

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membrane of mitochondrion matrix through ATP synthase , so energy used to
make ATP from ADP and Pi by chemiosmosis

3 Movement of electrons in ETC release energy

 Steps oxidative phosphorylation by chemiosmosis

1. Oxidation of reduced NAD ( NADH ) , to release hydrogen atom

2. Hydrogen atom from NADH , split into hydrogen ion ( proton ) and electrons

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3. The electron pass along carriers ( from one carrier to another ) through ETC in the inner membrane of

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mitochondria
4. The energy released from electron transport chain is used to pump protons into inter membrane space to creat a
proton / electrochemical gradient across the cristae

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5. Then proton diffuse back by facilitated diffusion into matrix through ATP synthase , so the energy used in
producing ATP from ADP and Pi.

4 . Co enzymes Non protein …assist as enzymes

NAD iha FAD NADP Co enzyme A

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Hydrogen carrier ( transfer hydrogen) Hydrogen carrier ( transfer hydrogen) Hydrogen Transfer acetyl group
1. Glycolysis Kreb’s cycle carrier ( 2C unit ) in
2. Linked reaction Oxidative phosphorylation ( transfer Linked reaction of
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3. Kreb’s cycle hydrogen) in respiration to kreb’s

4. Oxidative phosphorylation plants cycle

For chemiosmosis
 Steps involved in aerobic respiration Net 2 ATP
1. Glycolysis 2NADH
C6H12O6 + 6O2……………………………………..6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
2 x pyruvate 3C
1. Glucose move by facilitaed diffusion through cell surface membrane

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In CYTOPLASM

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Glucose ( 6C )
2. Phosphorylation of glucose by one ATP
Phosphorylation of

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Glucose 6 phosphate
glucose using 2ATP
3. Phosphorylation of glucose 6 phosphate by another ATP

Fructose 1,6 biphosphate So the glucose can’t leave the cell

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( phosphorylated hexose 6C ) Increasing the energy means making it more
active / decreasing its stability of glucose
4. Split ( lysis ) means lowering activation energy

2X Triose phosphate (3C)

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2XTP 5. Oxidation of TP / dehydrogenation by NAD………….2 reduced NAD
So TP ( 3C compound ) oxidised , leading to reduction of 2 NAD
2X Intermediate bisphosphate
6. Substrate linked phosphorylation where ADP and intermediate TP ( phosphorylated compound ) occupy
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the active site of an enzyme and phosphate group to ADP to form ATP …( produce 4ATP )

2X Pyruvate 3C
22/1/2025
Part 2

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Aerobic respiration

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Class work :
1. State the importance of linked reaction
[Link] the products of kreb’s cycle
[Link] how oxidative phosphorylation takes place

iha 4. explain Role of oxygen in aerobic respiration

5. explain Cyanide causing rapid death
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 Dehydrogenation ….2 reduced NAD
2. Linked reaction
Decarboxylation ….2CO2
2x pyruvate ( 3C) Acetyl group bind to Co A …2x acetyl Co A
IN CYTOPLASM

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Mitochondrial matrix

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2x pyruvate ( 3C)

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1. Dehydrogenation to reduce NAD ( 2 reduced NAD produced )
2. Decarboxylation to form CO2 ( 2 CO2 produced )

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2x Acetate ( 2C)

3. Transfer of 2 acetyl group to Co enzyme A

acct
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2x Acetyl (2C ) Co A

Which delivers the acetyl group to kreb’s cycle

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[Link]’s Cycle . 2x Acetyl (2C ) Co A 4 Dehydrogenation ..3 reduced NAD and 1
reduced FAD
2 Decarboxylation….2 Co2 2 ATP
Substrate level phosphorylation .
X2 6 NADH
2FADH2

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Mitochondrial matrix 4CO2

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6C compound 2 B. Decarboxylation (n removal of CO2)

&
1 ( citrate) C. Dehydrogenation ( reduced NAD)
A. (2C) acetyl CO A

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X2 5C compound

3
FAN
6 Oxaloacetate ( 4C)
B. Decarboxylation (n removal of

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C. Dehydrogenation
2FADH2, 2ATP, 6NADH CO2)
( reduced NAD)
C. Dehydrogenation ( reduced
E. Regeneration of
NAD)
oxaloacetate for cycle
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to continue
4C compound 4C compound
Phosphorylated compound
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D. Substrate level phosphorylation
4
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C. Dehydrogenation L
4C compound Produce ATP
( reduced FAD)
 2 carbon compound ( acetate ) was carried by CO A

acetyl group …..2 carbon compound

+

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4 carbon compound ( oxaloacetate )

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6 carbon compound ( citrate )

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B. Decarboxylation (n removal of CO2)
CO2
C. Dehydrogenation ( reduced NAD) NADH

5 C compound remain
X2

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B. Decarboxylation (n removal of CO2) CO2
C. Dehydrogenation ( reduced NAD) NADH 4CO2
4 C compound 2ATP
6 NADH
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D. Substrate level phosphorylation
ATP 2FADH2
Produce ATP

E. Dehydrogenation ( reduced FAD)

FADH2
Regeneration into oxaloacetate
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NADH
C. Dehydrogenation ( reduced NAD)

Oxaloacetate
Glycolysis In cytoplasm

1. Glucose ………phosphorylation two times using 2 ATP …..producing fructose 1, 6 bisphosphate

( phosphorylated compound / hexose 6C bisphosphate )

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2 NADH
2. unstable 6C cpd will split into 2 TP ( 3C compound ) Net gain 2ATP

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2 pyruvate (3C)
[Link] of 2 TP ……..intermediate bisphosphate + 2NADH

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[Link] level phosphorylation of 4 ADP + 2 intermediate bisphosphate …4 ATP ( net gain 2 ATP )

Producing 2 pyruvate (3C)

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Linked reaction 2NADH In matrix
2CO2
Dehydrogenation ….X2……..=2NADH
2 acetyl CO A
Decarboxylation…X2……..=2CO2
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Producing acetyl CO A X2
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FAN Kreb;s cycle 6 reduced NAD In matrix

2 reduced FAD
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4X dehydrogenation …..3 NADH + reduced FAD

2X decarboxylation …..2CO2 2 4 CO2
2ATP
Substrate level phosphorylation ….ATP
 4. Oxidative phophorylation 10 NADH
2 FADH2

1. Takes place inner mitochondrial membrane ( cristae )

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2. Final stage of aerobic respiration to produce, where the energy for phosphorylation of ADP to ATP comes from
the ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN ETC

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3. Where reduced FAD and NAD ( reduced Co enzymes ) produced from linked reaction and kreb’s cycle
are oxidised Outer membrane

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[Link] co enzymes NAD FAD Inter membrane space
transport hydrogen to the ETC Inner membrane
[Link] of the reduced NAD

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and FAD to release hydrogen Matrix
atom .
5. The hydrogen ions then diffuse back by facilitated
3. The hydrogen from Co enzymes is split into hydrogen ions and electrons diffusion into the matrix through ATP synthase.
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[Link] electron will pass across carriers in the ETC ( from carrier to ATP is produced from ADP and Pi ( phosphorylation of
carrier ) in the inner mitichondrial membrane to reach the Cytochrome ADP)
oxidase complex .

6. Oxygen act as the final electron acceptor ( Oxygen ,

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5. The energy released from electron transfer is used to pump protons ( by proton , electrons together form molecules water ) ..oxygen
active transport) into inter-membrane space to creat a proton gradient is reduced to water….catalysed by cytochrome oxidase
across the cristae ( protein in the inner mitochondrial membrane )
Role of oxygen in aerobic respiration 1/2 O2 + 2 e- + 2 H+ …..H2O

1. Oxygen is needed in oxidative phosphorylation

2. Oxygen act as final electron acceptor

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3. From electron transport chain

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4. reduced to water / accepts the hudrogen ion ( from reduced NAD / FAD) to form water
5. For regeneration of FAD and NAD
6. And so the electron transport chain can continue

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[Link] the production of ATP

Cyanide causing rapid death :

•
•

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act as a non competitive inhibitor
Inhibit the enzyme ( cytochrome oxidase ) responsible for adding hydrogen to
oxygen to form water
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• Where oxygen act as a final electron acceptor
• Hydrogen ions and electrons accumulate on the carriers
• So ETC will stop
• No pumping of hydrogen ions …so no proton gradient
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• No proton diffuse back through ATP synthase

• So less / no production of ATP
No chemiosmosis and oxidative phosphorylation …..ATP only from glycolysis
Glucose + 6O2 …………………6CO2 + 6H2O+ ATP

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Enters the cytoplasm Electron + H+ + oxygen

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Used in glycolysis Cytochrome oxidase

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Turn into 2 pyruvate
Final electron acceptor H2O
1/2O2 + 2H+ + 2e-= H2O

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Reduce oxygen to water
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION

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4 CO2 produced
-

Aerobic respiration 2 CO2 produced

from Kreb’s cycle
from linked reaction
Glycolysis
2ATP
2NADH
2 pyruvate
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Linked reaction 2 NADH
2 Co2 Substrate linked phosphorylation Oxidative
4ATP phosphorylation
Kreb’s cycle A) glycolysis. ( intermediate TP )
2FADH2
2ATP
6NADH
Using
B) kreb’s cycle ( 4 C compound )
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4CO2

10 NADH
Oxidative 2 FADH2
phosphoryaltion
O2 + H+ + e-..water '
27/1/2025
Part 3
Anaerobic respiration

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Respiratory substrate

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Respiratory quotient

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Classwork :
1. Describe lactate fermentation / explain the role of pyruvate in anaerobic
respiration
2. compare between alcohol fermentation and lactate fermentation

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3. Why anaerobic respiration produces less ATP
4. If a runner starts long distance event at a fast speed , then he will have to
slow down to speed that is supported by aerobic respiration, why?
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5. What meant by oxygen debt
6. Explain why after stopping exercise the oxygen consumption increases :
7. Explain increase in lactate concentration during exercise :
8. Explain the structure of mitochondria and how its adapted to its function
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9. Why lipids has the highest amount of energy per unit mass ?
 Anaerobic respiration

1. Respiration without oxygen

1. There is insuffecient suplly of oxygen ( the final electron acceptor )

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2. The final reaction of oxidative phsophorylation doesnt take place ( no reduction of oxygen into water )
3. The regeneration of NAD is stopped

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4. Where there is no way for the reduced carriers ( reduced NAD and reduced FAD) to be oxidised
5. So Kreb’s cycle and linked reaction will stop as they lack NAD and FAD

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A
Lactate fermentation C6H12O6…….2 C3H6O3 + 2 ATP In cytoplasm
So the regeneration of NAD is achieved by the PYRUVATE molecule from glycolysis …accept
hydrogen from reduced NAD in process FERMENTATION

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Glucose
Glycolysis ( 2ATP + 2NADH )

2 pyruvate
• can’t enter the mitochondria so remain in the cytoplasm
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• Pyruvate will be reduced ( hydrogen acceptor )
• By reduced NAD from glycolysis
• Reduced NAD , will be oxidised , to be regenerated , to be available to convert / oxidise 3C sugar to pyruvate
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• So ATP production will continue from glycolysis

Lactate ( 3C) …energy rich

+ net gain 2 ATP
Fate of lactate
2x Pyruvate
2x

Regeneration of NAD
• lactate diffuse into the blood NADH NADH Pyruvate is reduced
Lactate will be oxidised 2x
• To be transported into liver NAD
NAD

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• Lactate is converted back into pyruvate 2x Lactate
Reduced pyruvate

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• involving the production of reduced NAD
• So pyruvate is oxidised :
A) through Kreb;s cycle ( where pyruvate enter the linked reaction to react with CO A / respired )

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B) then using oxygen debt / requires extra oxygen
C) producing Co2 and water

Anaerobic respiration

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Glucose 6C
2ATP
2NADH

2x pyruvate • Pyruvate is reduced to lactate

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2 NADHReduction to pyruvate • Lactate is oxidised into pyruvate
2 NAD • Pyruvate is respired aerobically
Oxidation of NAD

2 x lactate
2 NAD Oxidation of lactate
To liver
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Reduction of NAD
2NADH
2 x pyruvate
Aerobic respiration
Carbon dioxide and water
Lactate fermentation Read only
( anaerobic respiration ) Repeats

C6H12O6…….2 C3H6O3 + 2 ATP

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Glycolysis…..cytoplasm

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Glucose ……. …….2 pyruvate + 2NADH + 2ATP

2TP ……………..2 pyruvate + 2NADH

2 NAD

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Reduction of pyruvate ( hydrogen acceptor ) to allow regeneration of NAD , for glycolysis

Reduction
2X Pyruvate …………………….2 x lactate ( reduced form of pyruvate )
NADH ….NAD

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Oxidation
2X Lactate ……………………….2 x pyruvate ( oxidesed form of lactate )
NAD ….NADH
Using oxygen from oxygen debt Linked reaction…..matrix
2x Pyruvate …. 2 acetyl COA
Aerobic
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2 CO2 + 2NADH
KREB”S CYCLE…..matrix
respiration /
oxidation of
2 acetyl CoA + oxaloacetate ……..oxaloacetate
lactic acid
2 FADH2
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2ATP
6NADH
Oxidative phosphorylation
4CO2
10 NADH, 2 FADH2……….1/2 O2 + 2e+ 2 H+…H2O
B
Alcohol fermentation
C6H12O6 …………2CO2 + 2 C2H5OH + ( ATP)
Irreversible ( yeast and in plants mainly roots)

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Glucose

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2 NAD
2NADH
Glycolysis
2 pyruvate

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Ethanal ( acetaldehyde )
Act as a hydrogen acceptor from reduced NAD

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2 NADH
2NAD
Irreversible reaction
Ethanol
NAD+ regenerated , so can accept hydrogen so glycolysis can continue
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 Compare between alcohol fermentation and lactate fermentation

Alcohol fermentation Lactate feremntation

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• ethanol is produced
• lactate produced

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• Irreversible ( convert the pyruvate into
• Reversible ( lactate can be converted into
ethanol )
pyruvate using oxygen debt )
• pyruvate act as hydrogen acceptor

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• ethanal act as a hydrogen acceptor
• No decarboxylation ( no CO2 produced )
• Involved decarboxylation producing CO2
• Needs oxygen ( oxygen debt ) to oxidise
• Doesn’t need oxygen
the lactate

1. iha
State the total number of ATP molecules produced from both aerobic and anaerobic :

Anaerobic respiration only 2 ATP from glycolysis

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2. Aerobic respiration has a net of 38 ATP :
• glycolysis ..2ATP + 2NADH
• linked reaction …..2NADH NADH …..3 ATP
• Kreb’s cycle …2 ATP + 2FADH2+ 6NADH FADH2 ….2ATP
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10 NADH ….30 ATP

Oxidative phosphorylation
2 FADH2 ….4ATP
2 ATP
2 ATP
Substrate level phosphorylation
 Why anaerobic respiration produces less ATP

1. Only glycolysis is taking place ( which involves substrate level phosphorylation )

Producing only 4 ATP with net gain 2 ATP

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2. Oxygen is absent , which act as a final electron acceptor

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So ETC doesnt take place
Where most of the ATP produced in oxidative phosphorylation under aerobic conditions
3. Pyruvate is converted ( reduced ) into lactate which is energy rich
Some reduced NAD is used to reduce pyruvate to lactate rather than entering ETC .

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If a runner starts long distance event at a fast speed , then he will have
to slow down to speed that is supported by aerobic respiration, why?

iha
[Link] one can tolerate the high concentration of lactate that will be produced from anaerobic respiration when
running ata fast speed .
2. No enough glycogen stored in body to provide the glucose for such s Long time .
3. Fats can only be respired aerobically
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Why Oxygen consumption after exercise increase? to repay the oxygen debt

The volume of oxygen absorbed by the body to metabolise the lactate produced from anaerobic respiration in
Dr

muscles .
Where it is responsible for the conversion of lactate into pyruvate (in a reaction catalysed by lactate dehydrogenase ) .
Then pyruvate is respired aerobically into CO2 and water
Explain why after stopping exercise the oxygen consumption increases :

1. As lactate was produced from anaerobic respiration

2. So oxygen is needed to metabolise ( reoxidise ) the lactate . Respired aerobically Co2 + H2O

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3. Where its resposnible for the conversion of lactate into pyruvate.

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Turned into glycogen
A) So that glycogen stores are replenished in muscles
B) Also reoxygenation to haemoglobin and myoglobin

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C) Also oxygen is needed in aerobic respiration .
Used in oxidative phosphorylation to allow regeneration of NAD .

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Explain increase in lactate concentration during exercise :

Muscles using oxygen faster than it can be delivered

Anaerobic respiration is taking place
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Pyruvate converted into lactate
And reduced NAD is oxidised
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Structure of mitochondrion

1. Outer mitochondrial membrane

2. Inner mitochondrial membrane ;

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Folded forming cristae to increase surface area

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A) contain ATP synthase ( for oxidative phosphorylation)
B) site of ETC
Involves pumping of Hydrogen ions / protons into inter membrane space

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So it will build up a proton gradient
Protons will diffuse back through ATP synthase into matrix
Making ATP

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.Not permeable to glucose / nor hydrogen ions ( they cant pass through hydrophobic core) .

3. Inter membrane space : low pH as its site with high proton concentration
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4. Matrix : site of linked reaction and Kreb’s cycle , it contains DNA loop and 70S ribosomes .

5. DNA : has genes for transcription …..coding for mRNA to code for proteins such mitochondrial enzymes
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( ATP synthase)

6. 70 S ribosomes : site of translation , assemble amino acids into proteins such as respiratory enzymes /
inner membrane proteins .
29/1/2025
Part 4
Respiratory substrate

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Classwork

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1. State different respiratory substrate
2. Why lipids has the highest amount of energy per unit mass ?
3. Explain how fats can be used as a respiratory substrate

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[Link] how proteins can be used as a respiratory substrate
[Link] / state respiratory quotient of glucose / triglycerides / proteins
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Respiratory substrate
Glucose is the essential respiratory substrate for the cell …….yet other cells can oxidise / break down lipids and
amino acids .

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The substance used as a fuel and oxidised during cellular respiration to produce ATP for energy

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16 kj /g

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39 Kj /g

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17kj / g
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1 . glucose

Is the main respiratory substrate

2 . Lipids

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They have high energy storage

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Lipase
Lipids ………………………….fatty acids + glycerol

• fatty acids …are made from a long hydrocarbon chain where they will be broken down an enzyme …where 2
carbons are broken at a time producing acetyl CO A

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• Acetyl COA will enter matrix
• And used in Kreb’s Cycle which produce ATP

• The hydrogen in the hydrocarbon chain is split ..electron are accepted by electron carriers to pass by

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electron transport chain to produce ATP .
• We use the lipids only in the absence of glucose .

3 . Proteins N. C. C. OH
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R
• proteins are broken down into amino acids
• Where deamination takes place in liver that involves the removal of amine group
• The remaining organic part is converted into pyruvate or acetyl Co A …depending on the R groups
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• then enter Kreb’s cycle

- protein is used as respiratory substrate in absence of glucose and lipid
-in case of starvation or hibernation .
 Why lipids has the highest amount of energy per unit mass ?

1. Fatty acids have more hydrogen per unit mass

2. So more reduced NAD and FAD produced

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3. More electrons pass along ETC

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4. More hydrogen ions pumped out into inter membrane spaces
5. So steeper a steeper proton gradient
6 . So more ATP produced per unit mass
7. So FATS are broken AEROBICALLY , so more hydrogen ions transferred for ETC for more chemiosomsis

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Respiratory quotient :

1.

RQ= 6/6= 1 iha

Carbohydrates / glucose C6H12O6 + 6O2…………………..6CO2+ 6H2O

Respiring aerobically and the respiratory substrate is carbohydrate

RQ values are useful
as they tell us whether
respiration is aerobic
.N
or anaerobic and the
2. Fats / lipids / triglycerides C57H110O6 + 163O2 ……..114CO2 + 110 H2O type of respiratory
substrate ( lipid /
RQ= 114/163= o.7 Respire aerobically and the respiratory substrate is lipids carbo/ protein) or a
mixture of them
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[Link] 4C2 H5O2 + 9O2 ……8CO2 + 10 H20

RQ= 8/9= 0.9 Respiring aerobically and the respiratory substrate is proteins
Glucose …RQ = 1
Triglyceride …..RQ= 0.7
Proteins ……..RQ= 0.9 RQ values are useful
as they tell us whether
0.8 …mixture of glucose and triglycerides / triglycerides with proteins

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respiration is aerobic
or anaerobic and the

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1 or less than 1 ……respire aerobically type of respiratory
substrate ( lipid /
More than one ( mixture ) carbo/ protein) or a
No O2 ….anaerobic respiration …RQ is infinity mixture of them

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