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Shoaib Munaf(MSM)
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Inheritance
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Genetics: the study of inherited characters and the way they express
Mendel’s experiments:
Monohybrid inheritance:
Inheritance involving one pair of contrasting characters is called monohybrid inheritance
In one of his experiments. Mendel crossed tall plants with dwarf plants. He used pure bred
varieties. He cross pollinated the tall plants with pollen from the dwarf plant and vice versa. He
planted the seeds and observed the resulting hybrids which he called the F1 generation (first
filial). He then allowed the F1 to self-pollinate and produce new generation that is F2. From
1064 plants in F2 787 were tall and 277 were dwarf.
In all his experiments he observed that one trait remained unchanged in the F1 hybrids i.e.
tallness while the other trait i.e. dwarfness seemed to disappear. Mendel called the trait that
appear unchanged in the F1 a dominant and the other a recessive trait.
Dominance:
Monohybrid inheritance refers to presence of one characteristic that has two
contrasting forms e.g. tall/dwarf, black/white
Each characteristic is influenced by a gene which has two alleles
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The dominant allele will control the dominant characteristic
The recessive allele remains dormant, unless in the homozygous state. In this case gene
carries both recessive alleles
Important terms:
Chromosome
It is a thread like structure
found in nucleus. Carries the
information for making new
bodies of plants and animals.
The information is carried in
DNA
Gene
It is a small segment of DNA in
a chromosome where a piece
of heredity information is
saved. It resides on the green
locus. Each gene carries a
special function
Allele
Different forms of the gene is called alleles. Gene
for the height and the colour are both alleles.
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Homologous chromosomes:
Chromosomes come in pairs in humans as shown above in the diagram of chromosomes. One
chromosome in the pair comes from the male parent and one from the female parent. A pair of
homologous chromosomes will have the exactly same sequence of gene loci. However, alleles
may not be the same.
Alleles are alternative forms of a gene and occupy the same relative positions on a pair of
homologous chromosomes.
If the organisms is pure bred, the two alleles are the same and the organism is said to be
homozygous for that. Mendel’s tall plant is homozygous dominant (TT) and the dwarf plant
homozygous recessive (tt). The hybrids produced by Mendel, when he crossed tall with short
plants to produce F1 generation. If they had different alleles for height then said to be
heterozygous for that
Phenotype:
Phenotype refers to the expressed trait that is the outward appearance and visible character of
an organism. Therefore, the characteristic of an organism which can be seen, such as tallness
and dwarfness in pea plants are photosynthesis.
Genotype:
This is the genetic makeup of an organism that is the gene and their respective alleles. So,
dwarf pea plants have the genotype tt while a tall plant have genotype Tt or TT
Therefore, a dominant allele expresses and gives the same phenotype in homozygous and
heterozygous condition. A recessive allele doesn’t express itself in heterozygous condition but
homozygous condition.
Test cross:
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The genotype of an organism showing the dominant trait can be determined by crossing it with
an organism that is a homozygous recessive. This is known as a test cross.. if organism is
homozygous dominant, then all offspring should show the dominant trait. If it is heterozygous
then half the total number of offspring should show the dominant trait, remaining half the
recessive trait.
Co-dominance:
If a characteristic is the result of two alleles which are equally dominant, the phenotype is of an
intermediate nature. These types of alleles are termed co-dominant. here is an example of
codominance in colour of flowers
Multiple alleles:
In a population there may be more than two alleles for a given trait. If a gene exists in more
than two alleles it is said to have multiple alleles.
Blood groups in man:
There are four blood groups in human population. They are A, B, AB and O blood groups.
Blood group type Antigen Antibody Genotype
A A B IA IA
IA IO
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B B A IB IB
IB IO
AB A&B No IA IB
O No A&B IO IO
Determination of the sex in man:
Sex chromosomes the 23rd pair determine the sex of a person. N females, the sex chromosomes
are made up of a homologous pair of X-chromosomes. In males, this pair is made of a long x
chromosome and a short Y chromosome. The female gametes contain an X-chromosome. The
male sperm contains either an X or Y chromosomes. The x sperm or y sperm determines if the
child is male or female.
Mutation:
Mutations involve spontaneous changes to a chromosome or a gene. This change causes the
gene to be coded differently from what it was supposed to be. Mutagens (environmental or
chemical) can increase the rate of mutation in cells
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Gene mutation Chromosome mutation
May cause gene to be inherited or recessive Can happen during meiosis
Can be inherited Change in number and sizes of chromosome
May lead to sever disease e.g. haemophilia Causes variation in population
In sickle cell anaemia, gene is recessive and Those with advantageous variation will be
masked by dominant normal gene selected for in the long run
Mutations in bacteria and insects usually In humans, mutations may lead to harmful
increase their chances of survival characteristics. E.g. Down’s syndrome
Genetic engineering
Genetic engineering is a technique used to transfer genes from one organism to another.
Individual genes may be cut off from the cells of one organism and inserted into the cells of
another organism of the same or different species. A vector, usually a plasmid, is used to
transfer the gene. The transferred gene can express itself in the genetically engineered
organism.
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How a human gene is inserted into a bacteria
Genes can be
transferred from human
cells to bacterial cells.
This enables us to
transfer the gene which
makes insulin to
bacterial cells. The
bacteria produce
insulin. In this situation
when a foreign gene is
acquired by organism is
called a transgenic
organism. The
bacterium which
acquire human insulin
gene is called transgenic
bacterium
Firstly the insulin
gene is isolated using a
suitable enzyme.
Enzyme cuts the DNA
with sticky ends so it
can easily stick to any
other human gene.
The same enzyme is used to cut the circular DNA from that bacterial cells. Now the DNA
is been cut with same ends as now the insulin gene can easily stick
Now insert the human DNA into the bacterial DNA using an enzyme to join the sticky
ends.
Treat the bacterium so that it takes that DNA. Now the bacterial cell will multiply be
resulting in the simultaneous multiplication of the human gene. Each molecule will now
produce human insulin.
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Variation:
Individuals belonging to the same population or species shows different characteristics within
them. These differences show the variation within the species. Variation is the result of new
gene combinations.
Continuous variation:
Individuals exhibit a range of characteristics
Not easily distinguished
Combined effect of many genes
Effects the way genes express themselves
Examples: height, weight, skin colour
Discontinuous variation:
Sharp contrast between characteristic of individuals
Easily distinguished
By one or a few genes at work
No effect on the genes
Examples: ABO blood group.
Causes of variation:
Genetic variation:
Mutation
Meiosis
Sexual production
Environmental factors:
Diet
Radiation
Pollution
Selection:
Natural selection:
Individuals who are better adapted to have better chance of survival
They are also likely to have a better chance to reproduce as compared to those
individuals whore less adapted to the environment
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This is the classic case of survival of the fittest
An on-going process which could be a possible mechanism for evolution
Artificial selection:
Plants and animals which desirable characteristics are specially selected for breeding
purposes
Completely new varieties of individuals are formed through this interbreeding process
Crops are interbred for higher yields better nutritional value and greater resistance to
disease or better tolerance top environmental changes
Animals are interbred for higher meat and milk production or thicker and longer coats.
Natural selection Artificial selection
Sickle cell anaemia: In breeding:
Common in areas where malaria is endemic Crossing of closely related individuals to
maintain desirable characteristic of parent
Gives slight immunity to malaria
plant
Penicillin resistant bacteria: Out-breeding:
Mutant allele in bacteria prevents it from Crossing of unrelated species
reacting to penicillin
Gives bacteria resistance to antibiotics
Dark peppered moth e.g. horses, dogs, and cats are bred for racing
and appearance
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INHERITANCE
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ANSWERS
1 B 21 A 41 C 61 C
2 C 22 C 42 A 62 D
3 B 23 C 43 A 63 B
4 A 24 C 44 C 64 A
5 A 25 A 45 B 65 B
6 D 26 C 46 D 66 A
7 A 27 A 47 D 67 C
8 B 28 D 48 C 68 C
9 C 29 A 49 D 69 B
10 C 30 A 50 B 70 C
11 D 31 B 51 B 71 C
12 A 32 B 52 C 72 D
13 A 33 D 53 C 73 A
14 C 34 C 54 B 74 C
15 A 35 D 55 B 75 D
16 C 36 D 56 C 76 D
17 A 37 C 57 D 77 B
18 B 38 C 58 A 78 A
19 B 39 A 59 C 79 C
20 C 40 D 60 B 80 C
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