Biology by MSM

Reproduction in plants

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A property of living organisms in which they are able to produce new off springs of their own
kind. It is not required for the survival but it is for the continuity for the race/generation.
Types of reproduction:
Sexual
Asexual
Types of cell division:
Mitosis Miosis
Cell division (Nuclear division) in which a A type of nuclear division in which a parent
parental nucleus divides into two nuclei nucleus divides into four daughter nuclei
having same [Link] chromosomes. having reduced no. of chromosomes

Reproduction in plants:
Asexual reproduction: this process doesn’t involve gamete formation for their fusion. It is a fast
process. The offspring produced are genetically identical.
Natural:
Budding:

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An outgrowth is formed
containing large
cytoplasm known as Bud
which can then detach
from the plant to form a
new plant.

Fission:
Splitting of a cell into two or more than two cells is known as fission.
Binary fission
Multiple fission

Artificial:

Tissue culture technique

Divisible cells → nutrient medium → callus group of cells artificially grown → roots develop

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Sexual reproduction in plants:

In flowering plants, the sex organ is found in the flowers. Some plants bear both male and
female flowers on the same plant e.g. Maize.

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Sepals: protection from sun
and rain, if green serve to
photosynthesis food, if colourful
serves to attract insects for
pollination, non-reproductive part.
Petals: pollination, support
for the stamen, protection from
heat and rain, helps to direct
insects towards the nectary, non-
reproductive part
Stamen: male reproductive
part, supports anther, produce
and release pollen grain.
Carpel/Pistils: female
reproductivity part, contains
ovules which develop into seeds,
collect pollen grain, develop into
fruits.

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Pollination
Flowers have various adaptations to facilitate pollination. Plants rely on wind or animals to
transfer pollen to the stigma, to enable fertilisation. If the transfer of pollen is from a plant to
another of a different genetic makeup, the process is called cross-pollination. If the transfer
occurs within the same plant, it is called self-pollination.
Wind pollination:

Dull coulured petals

No nectar/scent
Small petals
Stigmas are feathery
Filaments are long
Anthers supported
outside flower
Minute pollen so can
easily be transferred via
wind
Large number of
pollens transformed

Insect pollination:
large and brightly coloured petals
Fragrant flowers
Nectar produced in nectary
Filaments are strong
Stigma lie within the petals
Large pollen grains with sticky face for adhering
insects
Anthers lie inside with flower

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The stages of fertilization process in the plants.

The fertilization process is a process after the

pollination process, and it is the process of fusion of
the nucleus of the male cell (the pollen grains) with
the nucleus of the female cell (the ovum) to form
the zygote.
The flowers are the reproductive structures of
angiosperms, They vary in the methods of
reproduction, The process of fertilization in plants
occurs when the gametes in haploid conditions
meet to create a zygote which is diploid.
After the pollination process, the pollen grains
sticks on the stigma which secretes sugary solution,
then the pollen grain germinates forming a pollen
tube that contain 2 male nuclei.
The pollen grains germinate after the carpel is
pollinated, the pollen tube emerges and grows, it
extends through the style till it reaches the ovule
inside the ovary through the micropyle.
The pollen tube does not reach the ovary in a
straight line, and there are two types of nuclei
which are the vegetative tube and generative nuclei of the pollen grain that pass into the pollen
tube.
The pollen tube grows through the style and curls to the bottom of the ovary and then near the
receptacle, The pollen tube breaks into the ovule through the micropyle and then to the
micropyle bursts into the embryo sac.
The end of the pollen tube degenerates? In the embryo sac, the male nucleus fuses with the
nucleus of the ovum ( the egg cell ) and forms a fertilized ovum which is known as a diploid zygote,
This process is known as true fertilization or syngamy.
The other male gamete or nucleus enters into the embryo sac, and it fuses with the secondary
nucleus which gives a triploid nucleus which is called the primary endosperm nucleus, and it
becomes a food source for the growing embryo.
The process of nuclear fission, where there is the formation of the primary endosperm nucleus
is called triple fission, and the zygote undergoes successive divisions to form the embryo inside
the ovule.
The ovule develops and becomes the seed while the ovary develops and becomes the fruit, and
the fruits differ from each other according to the nature of the ovary.
If the ovary contains one ovule, it will give a fruit with a single seed as olives and peaches, and if
the ovary contains many ovules, it will give a fruit with many seeds as the beans and the peas, In
case of fruits with multiple seeds, multiple pollen grains are necessary to fertilize with each ovule.

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Germination of a dicotyledonous seed:

Germination begins when the embryo in the seeds start to develop into a seedling
Viable seeds are able to remain alive for long periods without germinating
Conditions for germination vary: some are internal while others are external
Internal conditions are enzymes, seeds viability and supply of energy
External conditions include water, oxygen, and a suitable temperature.
Conditions:
Water:
Seeds take up water rapidly
Seeds swells
Testa ruptures
Activation of enzymes
All these will allow the embryo to grow
Oxygen:
Respiration
Need for energy
Temperature:
Between 28C and 37C
Too high and too low, enzymes denatured and inactive respectively
Light:
Most seeds can germinate in light or darkness
Light is needed for photosynthesis when the shoot appears

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Enzyme:
Hydrolyse insoluble storage materials into soluble materials
Easier for transportation

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Reproduction in man

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Sexual characteristics of male and female humans are developed by sex hormones. Pituitary
gland secretes gonad stimulating hormone which stimulates testes to produce testosterone.
The same hormone in woman stimulates ovaries to produce oestrogen. These lead to the
development of sexual characteristic in man. This age may very from person to person.
Male reproductive system:

Testes produce sperm and cells that produce testosterone.

Scrotum: it is located outside body; it is a skin pouch containing testes.
Prostate gland, Cowper’s and seminal vesicle: secretes seminal fluid. It nourishes sperm
by nutrients and enzymes, it combines with sperm to form semen.
Epididymis: it is a coiled tube for the storage of sperm. It provides activation and
nourishment to sperm

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Female reproductive system:

Ovary: paired and attached to dorsal part of the abdomen. Produces oestrogen and
progesterone.
Oviduct: it transfers ova from ovary into uterus. It is a site of fertilisation
Uterus: pear shaped muscular sac. It receives, nourishes and protects foetus during
pregnancy.
Cervix: it is where uterus meets vagina
Vagina: leads from cervix to vulva. It is a birth canal and muscular wall with lining of
mucus secreting cells.

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Gametes:
Feature Male gamete Female gamete

Structure Has a head a middle piece and a tail Spherical in shape

Nucleus contains either X or Y Nucleus has X
chromosomes chromosome
Diameter of 120 m to
About 60 m long and a diameter of 150 um
2.5m for the head.
Motility Motile Non-motile
Has a tail that enables it to swim towards Passive movement of
oviduct egg along the
oviduct is due to the
action of cilia on
oviduct and
peristalsis of oviduct
wall.
Numbers Numerous sperms are produced Number of eggs is
throughout life from puberty onwards. determined at birth
Large number of sperms is released per Only one egg is
ejaculation. released per month.
Both ovaries
together produce
about 500 mature
eggs

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The menstrual cycle:
In females the first sign of puberty is usually the discharge of blood or menses from uterus via
vagina. This is called menstruation. The menstrual period or time of menstruating is usually
lasts for about five days. However, the length of the menstrual period and the amount of blood
lost vary from female to female.
Variations:
Menstruation is the part of a cycle of events that take place in the female reproductive organs
every month. The cycle of the events is called the menstrual cycle. The average menstrual cycle
for an adult female is 28 days. However, menstrual cycles ranging from about 21 to 33 days
aren’t abnormal. There is natural variation in the length of the menstrual cycle. Stress,
tiredness, illness, unbalanced diet or malnutrition may alter or stop or stop the menstrual cycle
and change the interval between periods.
As a female ages, the ovaries will eventually stop releasing eggs and the menstrual cycle will
stop. This is called menopause. Menopause usually takes place between 45 and 55 years of age.
Changes in follicle during menstrual cycle:

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Stages in the menstrual cycle:

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Fertilisation and the development:

The fusion of the nucleus of the sperm and the ovum. The result is the formation of the zygote:
containing genetic material from both sperm and ovum. Fertilisation usually takes place in the
higher parts of the uterus, or over the oviducts.
Stages of fertilisation:
Contact between sperm and ovum:
 In oviduct
 Head of sperm releases enzyme to penetrate into ovum
Head of the sperm enters the ovum
 Protein coat of ovum thickens to prevent entry of other sperm
Sperms:
 Tail detaches and disintegrates
 All other sperm dies in the uterus
Nuclei
 Sperm nucleus fuses with ovum nucleus
 Forms a zygote
Zygote:
 Mitotic division to form a ball of cells
 Moved to uterus in 4-7 days

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 Develops finger like projections for implantation in the uterus wall.
What happens if fertilisation occurs:
the egg becomes a zygote and develops into embryo
embryo embed itself in uterine lining
embryo secrets hormone which prevent the corpus luteum from breaking down until
placenta is formed
corpus secretes progesterone and oestrogen until placenta is able to take over
production of progesterone and oestrogen

Placenta and other embryonic membrane:

once implanted, the embryo
undergoes many mitotic
divisions
it forms various types of
specialised tissues, extra
embryonic membranes and
placenta

Development of embryo:

The cilia lining of inner surface of oviduct

sweep zygote along the oviduct.
The zygote divides to form a ball of cells
called the embryo
It takes about five days for the embryo to
reach the uterus
Embryo sinks in or becomes embedded in
the uterine lining. This is called implantation.
It usually occurs about seven days after
fertilisation

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Development of placenta:

Soon after implantation

finger like projections called
villi begin to grow from the
embryo in uterine lining. They
contain blood capillaries from
embryo.
The villi and the uterine
lining in which the villi are
embedded make up the
placenta. Thus, the placenta is
formed partly from the uterine
lining.
A tube known as the
umbilical cord attaches the
embryo to the placenta

A membrane by the name amniotic sac began to develop about the same time as the
placenta
The amniotic sac encloses the embryo in a fluid filled space known as the amniotic
cavity.
The fluid in the amniotic cavity is known as amniotic fluid
Functions of placenta:
Allows oxygen and dissolved food substances for example glucose, amino acids, and
mineral salts to diffuse from mother’s blood into fetal blood
Produces progesterone to maintain uterine lining in a healthy state
Allows antibodies to diffuse from mother blood to fetal blood to fight against diseases
Allows excretory product and metabolic waste to diffuse from fetus blood into mother
blood.

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Umbilical cord:

The umbilical cord contains

blood vessels of the fetus. It
contains:
Two umbilical arteries that
transport deoxygenated blood
and metabolic waste product
from the fetus to the placenta.
One umbilical vein that
transport oxygenated blood
and food substances from the
placenta to fetus

Function of amniotic fluid:

It is a shock absorber
Supports the fetus before birth
Protects it against physical injury
It lubricates and reduces friction in the vagina or birth canal.
Dietary needs:
Protein → for development and new protoplasm
Carbohydrate → growth, energy
Calcium → bone and teeth
Iron → increase in blood volume
Vit D → bones and teeth, calcium absorption

Advantages of breast feeding:

It contains all the necessary nutrients, milk is more concentrated as infants digestion
improves
Easily digested, better absorption of nutrients
Contain antibodies for protection from infections
Temperature is always right

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Birth control:
Chemical:
Spermicide: abstain from intercourse during the woman’s fertile time

Function: ovum not released, there would be no pregnancy

Mechanical:
Condom: rubber worn over the penis

Function: collects sperm released during ejaculation

Diaphragm: flexible rubber cap
Function: placed in vagina over cervix
Harmonal:
Oral contraceptive pills: pills taken for 21 days
Function: hormones acts to prevent release of ovum
Injectable contraceptive: injected into the blood by doctor
Function: prevent release of ovum
Surgical:
Tubal ligation: oviducts clipped

Function: prevents contact between ovum and sperm

Vasectomy: sperm ducts cut or tied:

Prevents sperm from reaching ovum.

Sexually transmitted diseases:
Transmitted from infected to non-infected through sexual contact.
Syphilis:
 Bacterial infection
 Sores on the penis or around the vulva
 Rashes, headache
 Limited sexual contact to one partner
Gonorrhoea
 Bacterial infection → target → attack cells of urethra
 Severe pain or urination
 Discharge of pus
 Blockage of uterus in female and epiderymis in male

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Aids
 Fatal disease of the immune system, caused by HIV
 Final, and most serious stage of the disease
 Most of the time, patient dies from complications of the virus, not by virus itself

Symptoms Spread
Fatigue Blood
Fever/chills Saliva
Constipation Tears
Skin lesions Use of infected needles
Weight loss From mother to unborn child
Swollen glands Semen

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS & CONTINUITY OF LIFE

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ANSWERS
1 B 21 A 41 B 61 A
2 A 22 D 42 D 62 A
3 C 23 A 43 B 63 C
4 D 24 A 44 B 64 A
5 B 25 C 45 C 65 B
6 D 26 B 46 D 66 B
7 C 27 D 47 D 67 B
8 A 28 B 48 B 68 B
9 D 29 B 49 D 69 C
10 D 30 B 50 C 70 C
11 B 31 B 51 C 71 A
12 C 32 C 52 B 72 C
13 B 33 B 53 D 73 C
14 B 34 C 54 D 74 B
15 A 35 C 55 B 75 C
16 C 36 D 56 D 76 D
17 C 37 C 57 D 77 C
18 C 38 B 58 D 78 B
19 A 39 C 59 B 79 D
20 D 40 A 60 B 80 D

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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISM AND CONTINUITY OF LIFE

(a)REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
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(b) REPRODUCTION IN ANIMAL
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DEVELOPMENT OF ORGANISMS AND CONTINUITY OF LIFE

MARKING SCHEME
(a)REPRODUCTION IN PLANTS
Q1

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(b) REPRODUCTION IN ANIMALS
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