WKB Approximation
A brainless algorithm + a fully worked example
This PDF gives you a repeatable recipe for solving 1D quantum problems with the
Wentzel-Kramers-Brillouin (WKB) approximation. You will follow the same steps every
time: identify classically allowed and forbidden regions, write the WKB wavefunction,
and (for bound states) get energy levels from a single quantization rule.
What WKB is What you get
A semiclassical approximation to the Approximate wavefunctions in
1D Schrodinger equation when the allowed/forbidden regions, tunneling
potential varies slowly compared to estimates, and a simple energy
the local wavelength. quantization condition for bound
states.
Minimal prerequisites: the 1D time-independent Schrodinger equation and basic
integration/substitution.
WKB Approximation: a step-by-step algorithm Page 1
1. Core setup (what you always write first)
Start from the 1D time-independent Schrodinger equation:
-(hbar^2/2m) psi''(x) + V(x) psi(x) = E psi(x).
Define the local wave-number in the classically allowed region (E > V) and the decay-rate
in the forbidden region (E < V):
Allowed (E > V): k(x) = sqrt(2m(E - V(x))) / hbar
Forbidden (E < V): kappa(x) = sqrt(2m(V(x) - E)) / hbar
Turning points are points where E = V(x). They separate oscillatory behavior from
exponential behavior.
WKB validity check (quick and practical):
WKB is good when k(x) changes slowly over one wavelength. A common check
is |k'(x)| << k(x)^2 in allowed regions (and similarly |kappa'(x)| << kappa(x)^2
in forbidden regions). WKB typically fails very close to a turning point (where k
-> 0), which is why we use connection formulas there.
2. The WKB wavefunctions you plug in
Once you know which region you are in, you can immediately write the WKB form of
psi(x). You will later fix constants using boundary conditions and connection formulas.
Region WKB form Use this when
Allowed (E > psi(x) ~= 1/sqrt(k(x)) · [ A · exp(+ i * Bound-state
V) (integral of k dx)) + B · exp(- i * (integral interior,
of k dx)) ] scattering
Equivalently: psi(x) ~= (2C)/sqrt(k) · regions where
cos((integral of k dx) - pi/4) motion is
classically
allowed.
Forbidden (E psi(x) ~= 1/sqrt(kappa(x)) · [ C · exp(+ Tunneling
< V) (integral of kappa dx)) + D · exp(- barriers,
(integral of kappa dx)) ] wavefunction
tails where it
decays.
Tip: Pick a reference point (often a turning point) and define the phase/action as an
integral from that point to x.
WKB Approximation: a step-by-step algorithm Page 2
3. Connection formulas at a single turning point
Near a turning point x = x_t where E = V(x_t), WKB by itself breaks. The fix is a standard
matching rule (derived from Airy functions). Memorize it as a conversion between a
decaying tail and a cosine interior.
Just inside forbidden side Matches to allowed side
psi(x) proportional to (1/sqrt(kappa)) psi(x) proportional to (2/sqrt(k)) ·
· exp( - (integral from x to x_t of cos( (integral from x_t to x of k dx) -
kappa dx) ) pi/4 )
(decaying toward the turning point)
WKB Approximation: a step-by-step algorithm Page 3
4. The brainless WKB algorithm
Use this as a literal checklist. Treat each line as a command.
1 Write the equation and define k(x), kappa(x). Start from -(hbar^2/2m)
psi'' + V psi = E psi.
2 Find turning points. Solve E = V(x) to get x1, x2, ... (real roots).
3 Label regions on a number line. Mark where E > V (allowed) and E < V
(forbidden).
4 Decide the goal. Bound-state energies? Approximate psi(x)? Tunneling
probability?
5 Write the WKB form in each region. Allowed: oscillatory with 1/sqrt(k).
Forbidden: exponential with 1/sqrt(kappa).
6 Apply physical boundary conditions to remove unphysical pieces.
Example: as x -> +/- infinity in a confining potential, keep only the
decaying exponential, not the growing one.
7 Connect across each turning point. Use the connection formula (decay
tail <-> cosine interior, with a -pi/4 phase).
8 If it is a bound-state with two turning points, write the quantization
rule. Integral from x1 to x2 of k(x) dx = (n + 1/2) pi.
9 Solve the quantization condition for E. This is usually one integral
equation in E.
10 (Optional) Build psi(x) everywhere. Plug your E into the
allowed/forbidden expressions and normalize if needed.
Bound-state quantization rule you can usually jump to
If the potential makes a bound state with exactly two turning points (x1 is less than x2),
then the WKB energy levels satisfy:
Integral from x1 to x2 of k(x) dx = (n + 1/2) pi, n = 0,1,2,...
with k(x) = sqrt(2m(E - V(x))) / hbar.
WKB Approximation: a step-by-step algorithm Page 4
Why the +1/2: each turning point contributes a phase shift of pi/4. Two turning
points give pi/2, which becomes the +1/2 in (n + 1/2)pi.
Quick worksheet (fill-in template)
1) V(x) = ____________ , m = ____________ , hbar = ____________.
2) Turning points from E = V(x): x1 = ____________ , x2 = ____________.
3) k(x) = sqrt(2m(E - V(x))) / hbar.
4) Compute I(E) = (integral from x1 to x2 of k(x) dx).
5) Set I(E) = (n + 1/2) pi and solve for E.
6) Optional psi(x): Allowed uses cos((integral of k dx) - pi/4)/sqrt(k) and
forbidden uses exp(-(integral of kappa dx))/sqrt(kappa).
5. Worked example: 1D harmonic oscillator
energies
Problem: Use WKB to find the bound-state energies for the 1D harmonic oscillator V(x) =
(1/2) m omega^2 x^2.
Step 1: Identify the turning points.
Turning points satisfy E = (1/2) m omega^2 x^2, so x = +/- x0 with x0 = sqrt(2E / (m
omega^2)). Thus x1 = -x0 and x2 = +x0.
Step 2: Write k(x) in the allowed region.
Inside the classically allowed region (|x| is less than x0), E > V(x) and
k(x) = sqrt(2m(E - (1/2)m omega^2 x^2)) / hbar.
Step 3: Apply the bound-state WKB quantization rule.
Use: integral from -x0 to +x0 of k(x) dx = (n + 1/2) pi. So we compute:
I(E) = (1/hbar) * (integral from -x0 to +x0 of sqrt(2mE - m^2 omega^2 x^2) dx).
Step 4: Evaluate the integral explicitly.
Substitute x = x0 sin(theta), where x0 = sqrt(2E/(m omega^2)). Then dx = x0 cos(theta)
dtheta and theta goes from -pi/2 to +pi/2.
Using m^2 omega^2 x0^2 = 2mE, the square root becomes sqrt(2mE) cos(theta).
So
WKB Approximation: a step-by-step algorithm Page 5
I(E) = (1/hbar) * (integral from -pi/2 to +pi/2 of [sqrt(2mE) cos(theta)] * [x0
cos(theta)] dtheta).
= (sqrt(2mE) x0 / hbar) * (integral from -pi/2 to +pi/2 of cos^2(theta) dtheta).
But integral from -pi/2 to +pi/2 of cos^2(theta) dtheta = pi/2.
So
I(E) = (sqrt(2mE) x0 / hbar) * (pi/2).
And sqrt(2mE) x0 = 2E/omega, so I(E) = (E pi)/(hbar omega).
Step 5: Solve for the energies.
Set I(E) = (n + 1/2) pi:
(E pi)/(hbar omega) = (n + 1/2) pi -> E = hbar omega (n + 1/2).
Result: E_n = hbar * omega * (n + 1/2). For the harmonic oscillator, WKB gives
the exact spectrum.
Optional: WKB wavefunction shape (what you would write next)
With E fixed, the allowed-region wavefunction (|x| is less than x0) is approximately psi(x)
~= (2C)/sqrt(k(x)) * cos( (integral from a turning point to x of k dx) - pi/4 ). For |x|
greater than x0 it decays as psi(x) ~= C/sqrt(kappa(x)) * exp( - (integral from x0 to |x| of
kappa dx) ). Choose C by normalization.
Common failure modes
• Using WKB for a potential with sharp jumps (step potentials). The slowly
varying assumption breaks at discontinuities.
• Forgetting the (n + 1/2) shift. If you use n*pi instead, your energies will be
wrong.
• Forgetting that the 1/sqrt(k) factor matters. It is not just a phase; it changes
amplitude with x.
• Integrating k(x) over the wrong region. For bound states, integrate only
between turning points.
• Trying to apply WKB exactly at the turning point. Use connection formulas
or stay slightly away from it.
WKB Approximation: a step-by-step algorithm Page 6