6.

4 Design and construction of sewers

• Estimation of quantity of waste water

• Sewerage system and types

• Design criteria of sewers

• Shapes of sewers

• Design of sewers for separate and combined systems

• Construction of sewers and sewer appurtenances

8/31/2024 Water Supply, Sanitation and Environment 1

Estimation of quantity of waste water
I. Sanitary sewage / dry weather flow (DWF) :
Flow available at non rainfall period, normal flow
II. Storm water or wet weather flow (WWF) :
Additional Flow that occur during rainfall.
Therefore ,
Total Sewage = DWF + WWF

DWF Calculation
DWF = Rate of W/S x population x Return factor x Peak factor
• For Nepal, Return factor is taken as 80%
Peak factors to be considered for design of sewer
pipes
Types of sewer Peak factors

Domestic Sewer 6

Lateral Sewer 2-6

Branch Sewer 3

Submain Sewer 3

Main Sewer 2.5

Outfall sewer 2

Note: Peak flow is considered for design of sewer.

 Storm Sewage Calculations
Two methods: Rational and empirical
• Rational Method Intensity of rainfall:
Q = CIA/360 • Intensity is calculated using the
Where, Q = WWF Intensity-Duration-Frequency curve
C = run-off coefficient (IDF curve) ,
I = intensity of rainfall in mm/hr • or by following: Empirical formula
A = Area of catchment in Hectare British ministry of health formula for
C=
𝐶1 𝐴1+𝐶2 𝐴2+⋯𝐶𝑛 𝐴𝑛 intensity
𝐴1+𝐴2+⋯𝐴𝑛 760
•I= duration of storm for 5 to 20
𝑡+10
minutes
1020
• I= duration of storm for 20 to 100
𝑡+20
minutes
 Storm Sewage Calculations………
Note: Rational formula is limited to catchment area up to 400
hectares.

Empirical methods
• Burkli – Zeiglar formula
4 𝑆
Q = (CIA/141.58 ) *
𝐴
• Fuller’s formula
𝐶 . 𝑀^0.8
𝑄=
13.23
(Where, S- Slope of the area in meter per thousand meter,
M- drainage area in sq. km.,
A – drainage area in hectare)
Sewage Types
• Crude sewage/raw: untreated sewage
• Weak/dilute sewage”: having less suspended solid matter
• Fresh sewage: recently produced
• Septic sewage: which is undergoing the treartment process
 Time of concentration
 Tc = Te + Tf
Where Te is time of entry
 Tf = Time of travel or flow

Q. Time of concentration is the

 Sewerage System
• The entire system or network of sewers for collecting
and delivering sewage to a disposal point is called
sewerage system.
• Types:
I. Separate system
II. Partially separate
III. Combined system
 Sewerage System
1. Separate System

• Two different pipes for

sewage and storm water.
 Separate system
Advantages Disadvantages
I. Storm water is not I. Maintenance cost is high
polluted due to two set of pipes
II. Uniform characteristics of and difficulty in laying of
sewage pipe in in narrow streets
[Link] in treatment II. Chances of blockade and
due to less quantity of difficult to clean
sewage [Link] in house plumbing
[Link] risk of overflow of due to two sets of pipes
sanitary sewage etc..
 Sewerage System
2. Combined System
• Single pipe or system is
used.
 Combined system
Advantages Disadvantages
I. Easy plumbing I. Rain water gets polluted risk
II. No chances of choking due to of overflow during heavy
large size of sewer and rainfall.
availability of storm sewage II. Uneconomical if plumbing
III. Laying of pipe is easy in required due to ,large
congested area quantity of sewage
[Link] of sewage is reduced III. Risk of entry of stream
making it economical to sewage to sanitary sewage
treatment during heavy rain
[Link] initial cost due to more
depth of laying
 Sewerage System
• Partially Separate
System
Partially Separate system
Advantages Disadvantages
• It combines the advantages of • The velocity of flow is low in
both the combined system and dry weather.
separate system. • There is a possibility of
• The entry of stormwater overflow.
prevents the silting of the • The entry of stormwater in
sewer. the sewer may increase the
• The sewers are of reasonable load on the pumping and
size. treatment unit.
• The problem of disposing • If the diversion of stormwater
stormwater from houses is is not done at a proper time,
simplified. then it may create unnecessary
troubles.
Design criteria of Sewers……
• Amount of liquid in sewage= 99.9 %
• S.P gravity =nearly one(1.001)
• 25 to 30 yrs. design period
• Min 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑤 = 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑙𝑒𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 given by
Camp Shield formula :
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 8𝑘(𝑠 − 1)𝑔𝑑/𝑓
• Where, d= size of particle,
• S= 2.65 for inorganic & 1.2 for organic sediments.
• f = coefficient of friction = 0.03
• K constant depends upon characteristics of particle = 0.04 for grit
and 0.8 for sticky materials
Design criteria of Sewers……
Self cleansing velocity:
Self cleansing velocity could not be maintained due to inability
in determining k and friction factor 𝑓, so certain criteria like
sewer size etc. are considered for finding limiting velocity.
Diameter Velocity (m/s)
15cm-25 1.0 m/s
30cm -60 cm 0.7 m/s
>60cm 0.6 m/s

Note: Minimum self cleansing velocity = 0.6 m/s

Maximum self cleansing velocity = 3 m/s
Design criteria of Sewers …..
• Sewer size should not less than 15cm and available sizes in market are
15, 20, 30,35, 40 ….cm up to 1.6 m ( according to DWSSM standards)
• Sewer are designed to flow:

D<0.4 m = half full

D: 0.4-0.9 m =2/3 full
D>0.9 m ¾ full
Shapes of Sewers
• Rectangular section
I. Used in early days, but rarely used nowadays
II. May be pre cast or in-situ
III. Easy for construction but hydraulically not efficient
 Shapes of Sewers
• Circular Section
I. Most common section
II. less chances of deposition of silt
III. Easy manufacturing, transporting and laying ,
Circular Sewer Section
IV. Perimeter least for given area, so less material required

• Egged shaped
I. Suitable for combined and separate system but not in use
due to difficulty in construction
 Shapes of Sewers
• Semi elliptical
I. Suitable for large discharge

• Horse shoe type

I. Suitable for large perennial discharge
Hydraulic element of circular sewer
Circular sewer running full
• Area of flow section A= 𝜋𝐷2 /4
• Wetted perimeter P= 𝜋 D
• hydraulic mean depth = A/P = D/4
2 1
1
• Velocity of flow v = x 𝑅 x𝑆
3 2
𝑛
Circular sewer running partially full
𝑑 1 𝜃
= (1-Cos )
𝐷 2 2

Q. If a sewer is running 0.7 times full, then find the 𝜃.

Hydraulic element of circular sewer…
Circular sewer running partially full
𝑝 𝜃
I. 𝑃
= ( )
360
𝑎 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
II. 𝐴
= ( −
360 2𝜋
)
𝑟 360𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
III. 𝑅
= (1 −
2𝜋𝜃
)
𝑣 360𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 2/3
IV. 𝑉
= 1 −
2𝜋𝜃
𝑞 𝜃 360𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 5/3
V. 𝑄
=
360
1−
2𝜋𝜃
Sewer Appurtenances
I. Man hole/inspection chamber/access
chamber/ confined space
• Masonry or RCC chamber
• Cleaning, testing, inspection,
maintenance removal of obstruction from
the sewer line
Location of Man Hole
• At every change alignment(direction)
• At every change gradient(Slope)
• At every change size(dia)
• At every junction
• At regular interval
Sewer Appurtenances
I. Man hole/inspection chamber/access chamber/ confined
space
Dimension of access
chamber : 0.6 x 0.75 for
rectangular
0.6 to 0.75 m for circular
Dimension of working
chamber: 0.9x 1.2 for
rectangular
1.2 m for circular
Sewer Appurtenances
Drop Man Hole
• Special type of manhole and provided when elevation difference
is more than 0.6m
• Connect high level branch sewer to low level main sewer
Sewer Appurtenances
Lamp Man Hole
• To join a hole in the sewer and
the ground, for the purpose of
lowering a lamp inside the
sewer.
• Lamp hole dia.: 20-30 cm
• Used for inspection , flushing
and ventilation
• Constructed when construction
of manhole is difficult
• Also known as fresh air inlet
Sewer Appurtenances
Catch Basin (Catch Pit)
• Provided for the retention of heavy debris and
allow settlement and trap for sand grit.
• Settled material should be periodically
cleaned.
Sewer Appurtenances
Street Inlet
• Device or opening in the in the street constructed to admit storm water in
to the sewer line.
• it may be gutter, curb, or combined Street inlet

Kerb/curb
gutter
 Construction of sewer
Steps
1. Setting out: The lay out and location of manholes are
fixed by driving pegs or drawing offsets.
2. Alignment and gradient: The correct position of sewer
line and levels of sewer are fixed by calculations. This
is done with the help of boning rods, sight rails and
levels .
3. Excavation of trench
4. Timbering of trench: When excavation depth exceeds
1.5 to 2 m
5. Dewatering
6. Laying of sewer and construction of joints: Laid from
downstream.

Note: Boning rod is used to check sewer level.

Testing of sewer pipe
7. Testing
a. Straightness test : Done to find out whether the sewer is laid in a straight
line. Done using a light source and mirror .
b. Obstruction test : Done to find out irregularities in joints. A marble of
diameter 13 mm less than sewer is used.
c. Water test : Done to find the water tightness of sewer. The loss in
water should not be more than 0.2 litre/ mm diameter for 30 minutes
of testing under head of 2.5 m at the u/s end .

d. Air test : Done to find water tightness of sewer when water is

scarce. The air filled at pressure of 100 mm should not drop below 75
mm.

8. Back filing
• To be done by parent material .
• Filled in 15-20 cm and ramming each layer
Q. In a circular sewer of diameter D, if the depth of the flow is D/4, the wetted
perimeter will be:
a) πD/4
b) πD/2
c) πD/3
d) πD/5

What are the manholes having a depth greater than 1.5 m called?
a) Normal manholes
b) Deep manholes
c) Shallow manholes
d) Straight manholes

Explanation: The manholes having a depth of 0.7-0.9 m are called shallow

manholes. The manholes having a depth of 0.9-1.5 m are called normal
manholes. The manholes having depth greater than 1.5 m are called deep
manholes
MCQ Practice

NEC OQ
The suitable system for an area having
uniformly distributed mild rains throughout the
year, like in England is:
a) Separate
b) Combined
c) Partially separate
d) Partially combined
MCQ Practice
The means of access for inspection and cleaning of sewer line is known as
a) Inlet
b) Manhole
c) Catch basin
d) Drop manhole

For very small sewers, the maximum manhole spacing, specified by Indian
standards, is:
a) 30m
b) 45m
c) 75m
d) 100m
The factor affecting sanitary sewage are
a) Rate of water supply
b) Population
c) Unauthorized connection
d) All of the above

An egg shaped sewer in comparison to circular sewer is:

a) Economical
b) More stable
c) Easier to construct
d) Provides better self-cleansing velocity at low discharges
MCQ Practice
The drop manholes are provided in sewerage system when there is
a) Change in alignment of sewer line
b) Change in size of sewers
c) Change in the elevation
d) Change from gravity system to pressure system

10. Sewer are normally subjected to

a) Air test
b) Water test
c) Straightness test
d) Obstruction test
e) All of the above
MCQ Practice
11. The minimum size of sewer should not be less than
a. 12cm
b. 15cm
c. 19mm
d. 25cm

12. What is the facility provided to stop the entry of heavy debris
present in the storm water into the sewers called?
a) Curb inlet
b)Gutter inlet
c) Catch basin
d) Clean-outs
The correct ratio of the diameter of a circular sewer to the side of a
hydraulically equivalent square section of a sewer.
A. 1
B. 0.9
C. 0.925
D. 1.095
 NEC OQ
A city has a projected population of 60,000 spread over area of 50 hectare. Find
the design discharge for the separate sewer line by assuming rate of water supply
of 250 lpcd and out of this total supply only 75 % reaches in sewer as
wastewater. Assume P.F =2.
(a) 0.26 m^3/s
(b) 0.6 m^3/s
(c) 0.76 m^3/s
(d) 3.26 m^3/s

…... is the process in which flow of water from sewer to ground.

a) Exfiltration
b) Infiltration
c) both
d) Filtration
NEC OQ
The drainage discharge of a town of 16 Hectares area, consisting of 40% paved
area (c =0.8), 30% unpaved area (c =0.2) and remaining wooded area (c = 0.1),
with a maximum intensity of rainfall of 5 cm /hr, would be computed by
rational formula as equal to:
a) 0.91 cumecs
b) 0.091 cumecs
c) 9.1 cumecs
d) None