CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University

Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Lecture Notes - Module 1: Earth’s Water, Hydrology and the Hydrologic Cycle

Objectives:

• DEFINE the concept of weather hydrology.

• EXPLAIN the occurrence of rainstorms and how they are quantified in the Civil Engineering
practice; and
• CALCULATE different approximation methods in rainfall data collection.

Weather Hydrology

- Weather hydrology is the study of how water and energy move between the land and atmosphere,
and how these processes affect weather and climate.
- It's a complex science that combines meteorology, geology, geography, and other disciplines.

Atmosphere:

- The atmosphere surrounds the Earth and holds the air we breathe; it protects us from outer space;
and holds moisture (clouds), gases, and tiny particles.
- Consists of the following:
o Dry Air
▪ Nitrogen N2 (78.09%)
▪ Oxygen O (20.95%)
▪ Argon Ar (0.93%)
▪ Carbon dioxide CO2 (0.03%)
o Water vapor
o Impurities

Hadley Circulation

Hadley Circulation
The Hadley circulation (HC) is a global atmospheric system that moves air from the equator to the poles,
transporting energy and moisture. It's a vital part of Earth's climate and is responsible for the formation
of tropical rain belts and subtropical deserts.

How it works
• Air moves towards the equator at low latitudes
• Air is heated and rises vertically at the equator
• Air moves poleward in the upper atmosphere
• Air descends in the subtropics
How it affects the climate
• The HC reduces the temperature gradient between the equator and the poles
• The HC supplies angular momentum to maintain midlatitude storm tracks
• The HC shapes the Intertropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), which is the tropical rain belt
• The HC creates subtropical arid zones
How it's changing
• The HC is expected to expand poleward due to anthropogenic climate change
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

• The HC may weaken or strengthen in response to different mechanisms

• The HC has widened significantly in the last four decades
Who named it?
• The HC is named after George Hadley, an English physicist and meteorologist who proposed the
single circulation for each hemisphere in 1735
Video Guide: [Link]

Weather Front

Resource:[Link]
fronts#:~:text=A%20weather%20front%20is%20a,can%20cause%20clouds%20and%20storms.

(1) When a front passes over an area, it means a change in the weather. Many fronts cause weather events
such as rain, thunderstorms, gusty winds, and tornadoes. At a cold front, there may be dramatic
thunderstorms. At a warm front, there may be low stratus clouds. Usually, the skies clear once the front
has passed.

(2) The border between air masses of different temperatures, pressure and moisture is called a FRONT. A
weather front is a transition zone between two different air masses at the Earth's surface. Each air mass
has unique temperature and humidity characteristics. Often there is turbulence at the front, which is the
borderline where two different air masses come together. The turbulence can cause clouds and storms.

(3) Instead of causing clouds and storms, some fronts just cause a change in temperature. However, some
storm fronts start Earth's largest storms. Tropical waves are fronts that develop in the tropical Atlantic
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Ocean off the coast of Africa. These fronts can develop into tropical storms or hurricanes if conditions
allow.

(4) Fronts move across the Earth's surface over multiple days. The direction of movement is often guided
by high winds, such as Jet Streams. Landforms like mountains can also change the path of a front.

There are four different types of weather fronts: cold fronts, warm
fronts, stationary fronts, and occluded fronts.

1. Cold Front

A cold front forms when a cold air mass pushes into a warmer air
mass. Cold fronts can produce dramatic changes in the weather.
They move fast, up to twice as fast as a warm front. As a cold front
moves into an area, the heavier (more dense) cool air pushes
under the lighter (less dense) warm air, causing it to rise into the
troposphere. Lifted warm air ahead of the front produces cumulus
or cumulonimbus clouds and thunderstorms.

As the cold front passes, the wind becomes gusty. There is a

sudden drop in temperature, and heavy rain, sometimes with hail, Weather map showing a cold front. Air
temperatures ahead of the front are
thunder, and lightning. Atmospheric pressure changes from falling warmer than temperatures in the cold air
to rising at the front. After a cold front move through your area, mass behind the front.
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

you may notice that the temperature is cooler, the rain has stopped, and the cumulus clouds are
replaced by stratus and stratocumulus clouds or clear skies.

On weather maps, a cold front is represented by a solid blue line with filled-in triangles along it, like in
the map. The triangles are like arrowheads pointing in the direction that the front is moving. Notice
on the map that temperatures at the ground level change from warm to cold as you cross the front
line.

2. Warm Front

Warm fronts often bring stormy weather as the warm air mass at the
surface rises above the cool air mass, making clouds and storms. Warm
fronts move more slowly than cold fronts because it is more difficult for
the warm air to push the cold, dense air across the Earth's surface.
Warm fronts often form on the east side of low-pressure systems where
warmer air from the south is pushed north.

You will often see high clouds like cirrus, cirrostratus, and middle clouds
like altostratus ahead of a warm front. These clouds form in the warm
Weather map showing a warm front.
air that is high above the cool air. As the front passes over an area, the
Air temperatures ahead of the front
clouds become lower, and rain is likely. There can be thunderstorms are cooler than temperatures in the
around the warm front if the air is unstable. warm air mass behind the front.

On weather maps, the surface location of a warm front is represented by a solid red line with red,
filled-in semicircles along it, like in the map on the right (B). The semicircles indicate the direction that
the front is moving. They are on the side of the line where the front is moving. Notice on the map that
temperatures at ground level are cooler in front of the front than behind it.

3. Stationary Front
A stationary front is represented on
A stationary front forms when a cold front or warm front stops moving. This a map by triangles pointing in one
direction and semicircles pointed in
happens when two masses of air are pushing against each other, but neither the other direction.
is powerful enough to move the other. Winds blowing parallel to the front
instead of perpendicular can help it stay in place.

A stationary front may stay put for days. If the direction of wind changes,
the front will start moving again, becoming either cold or warm front. Or
the front may break apart.

Because a stationary front marks the boundary between two air masses,
there are often differences in air temperature and wind on opposite sides
of it. The weather is often cloudy along a stationary front, and rain or snow
often falls, especially if the front is in an area of low atmospheric pressure.
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

4. Occluded Front

An occluded front may share the characteristics of both warm and cold fronts. illustration of an occluded front,
Occluded fronts are denoted by a line with both semicircles and triangles and where a cold front overtakes a warm
front. Occluded fronts are denoted
are often colored purple on a weather map. by purple symbols on a weather map

Sometimes a cold front follows right behind a warm front. A warm air mass
pushes into a colder air mass (the warm front), and then another cold air
mass pushes into the warm air mass (the cold front). Because cold fronts
move faster, the cold front is likely to overtake the warm front. This is known
as an occluded front.

At an occluded front, the cold air mass from the cold front meets the cool air
that was ahead of the warm front. The warm air rises as these air masses
come together. Occluded fronts usually form around areas of low
atmospheric pressure.

There is often precipitation along an occluded front from cumulonimbus or nimbostratus clouds. The
wind changes direction as the front passes and the temperature either warms or cools. After the front
passes, the sky is usually clearer, and the air is drier.

On a weather map, shown to the right, an occluded front looks like a purple line with alternating
triangles and semicircles pointing in the direction that the front is moving. It ends at a low-pressure
area shown with a large ‘L’ on the map, begins at the other end when cold and warm fronts connect.

Storm Components:

1. Water Vapor – the amount of water vapor can be expressed as the pressure that vapor would
exert in the absence of other gases and is known as vapor pressure.
2. Lapse Rate – the variation of temperature with altitude is known as lapse rate (9.8°C/Km)
3. Relative humidity - Relative humidity (RH) (expressed as a percent) also measures water vapor,
but RELATIVE to the temperature of the air. In other words, it is a measure of the actual amount
of water vapor in the air compared to the total amount of vapor that can exist in the air at its
current temperature.
4. Specific humidity - is the amount of water vapor in each amount of air. It's a measure of the weight
of water vapor relative to the weight of air.
5. Wind – Movements of air. The measurement of wind is speed and direction. Windspeed is
important because it can be related to water losses and precipitation events. An instrument for
measuring wind speeds is called ANEMOMETERS.
6. Temperature – temperature influences the form of precipitation and the rates of evaporation,
transpiration and snowmelt
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Climate of the Philippines ([Link]

- The Climate of the Philippines is tropical and maritime.

- It is characterized by relatively high temperature, high humidity and abundant rainfall.
- It is similar in many respects to the climate of the countries of Central America.
- Temperature, humidity, and rainfall, which are discussed hereunder, are the most important
elements of the country's weather and climate.

1. Temperatures:
a. Mean annual temperature is 26.6°C (excluding Baguio)
b. Coolest months fall in January with a mean temperature of 25.5°C
c. Warmest month occurs in May with a mean temperature of 28.3°C
d. Latitude is an insignificant factor in temperature variation.
e. Baguio (El. 1500) has an annual mean temperature of 18.3°C
f. There is essentially no difference in the mean annual temperature of places in Luzon,
Visayas or Mindanao measured at or near sea level.
2. Humidity:
a. Due to high temperature and the surrounding bodies of water, the Philippines has a high
relative humidity.
b. The average monthly relative humidity varies between 71% in March and 85% in
September
c. The combination of warm temperature and high relative and absolute humidities give rise
to high sensible temperature throughout the archipelago.
d. High humidity during the months of March to May

3. Rainfall
a. Rainfall distribution throughout the country varies from one region to another, depending
upon the direction of the moisture-bearing winds and the location of the mountain
systems.
b. The mean annual rainfall of the Philippines varies from 965 to 4,064 millimeters annually.
c. Baguio City, eastern Samar, and eastern Surigao receive the greatest amount of rainfall
while the southern portion of Cotabato receives the least amount of rain.
d. At General Santos City in Cotabato, the average annual rainfall is only 978 millimeters.
4. Seasons
a. Using temperature and rainfall as bases, the climate of the country can be divided into
two major seasons: (1) the rainy season, from June to November; and (2) the dry season,
from December to May.
b. The dry season may be subdivided further into (a) the cool dry season, from December to
February; and (b) the hot dry season, from March to May.
5. Climate Types
a. Based on the distribution of rainfall, four climate types are recognized, which are
described as follows:
b. Typhoons have a great influence on the climate and weather conditions of the Philippines.
A great amount of rainfall, humidity and cloudiness are due to the influence of typhoons.
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

c. They generally originate in the region of the Marianas and Caroline Islands of the Pacific
Ocean which have the same latitudinal location as Mindanao.
d. Their movements follow a northwesterly direction, sparing Mindanao from being directly
hit by majority of the typhoons that cross the country.
e. This makes the southern Philippines very desirable for agriculture and industrial
development
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Residence Time
The residence time Tr is the average duration for a water molecule to pass through 2 subsystem of the
hydrologic cycle. It is calculated by dividing the volume of water S in storage by the flow rate Q.

Tr = S/Q
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Examples:
Estimate the residence time of global atmospheric moisture.

Solution:
The volume of atmospheric moisture = 12,900 km3
The flow rate of moisture from the atmosphere as precipitation = ocean + land
= 458,000 + 119,000
= 577,000 km3/yr

Using Tr = S/Q
= 12,900 / 577,000
= 0.022 yr
= 8.2 days

The very short residence time for moisture in the atmosphere is one reason why weather cannot be
forecasted accurately more than a few days ahead.

Precipitation

Definition:
- Fall of moisture from atmosphere in any form.
- Precipitation is any product of the condensation of water vapors that fall under gravity.
- It is an important input to hydrology.
- Floods and droughts are directly related to precipitation.

Factors determining precipitation are:

- Climate
- Geography
- Ocean Surfaces (the chief source of moisture for precipitation)

To form precipitation, there are four conditions that must be present for the production of precipitation:

(1) The atmosphere must have moisture

(2) Must be sufficient nuclei to aid condensation
(3) Weather conditions must be good for condensation of water vapor to take place
(4) Product of condensation must reach the Earth
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Different Forms of Precipitation

A. Liquid Precipitation

1. Rainfall – Sizes of raindrop 0.5 mm to 6 mm.

Type Intensity
Light Rain Trace to 2.5 mm/hr
Moderate Rain 2.5 mm/hr to 7.5mm/hr
Heavy Rain >7.5 mm/hr
2. Drizzle – Water droplets of size less than 0.5mm and intensity less than 1mm/hr

B. Frozen Precipitation

3. Snow – Density varies from 0.06 to 0.15 g/cm3 (average density 0.1 g/ cm3)
4. Glaze – When rain or drizzle comes in contact with cold ground at around 0°C, the water drops freeze
to form an ice coasting called glaze
5. Sleet – when rain falls through air at sub-freezing temperature, the frozen drop is called sleet
6. Hail – It is a showery precipitation in the form of irregular pellets or lumps of ice of size more than
8mm
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Mechanism for Precipitation

- All precipitation originates from parcels of moist air that have been cooled below dew-point
temperature.
- Lifting mechanism to cool the air.
- Formation of cloud elements (droplets/ice crystals)
- Growth of cloud elements.
- Sufficient accumulation of cloud elements.

Types of Precipitation:

1. Convective Precipitation – it results from the heating of Earth’s

surface that cause air to rise rapidly. As the air rises it cools,
and moisture condenses into clouds and precipitation.

2. Cyclonic Precipitation (Frontal/Non-frontal) – when

two air masses due to contrasting temperatures and
densities clash with each other, condensation and
precipitation occur at the surface of contact.

3. Orographic Precipitation – when heavily moisture laden

air stops due topographic conditions (mountains) and
precipitation occurs on the windward side of the
mountain leeward side receives very little.
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Measurement of Precipitation

1. Amount of precipitation
2. Intensity of precipitation
3. Duration of precipitation
4. Arial extent of precipitation

Types of rain gauges

1. Non recording rain gauges
It is a rain gauge which does not provide the distribution of the amount of precipitation in a day.
It simply gives the amount of precipitation after 24 hours (daily precipitation)

2. Recording rain gauges

These rain gauges are also called integrating rain gauges since they record cumulative rainfall. In
addition to the total amount of rainfall at a station, it gives the time of onset and cessation of rains
(thereby gives the duration of rainfall events)

Types of recording Rain gauges

There are three main types of recording rain gauges:
1. Float type rain gauges
- The rise of float with increasing catch of rainfall is recorded. Some
gauges must be emptied manually while others are emptied
automatically using self-starting siphons. In most gauges oil or
mercury is the float and is placed in the receiver, but in some cases
the receiver rests on a bath of oil or mercury and the float measures
the rise of oil or mercury displaced by the increasing weight of the
receiver as the rainfall catches freezes. Float may get damaged by
rainfall catch freezer

2. Tipping bucket type rain gauges

- It consists of 30 cm dia. sharp edge receiver.
- At the end of receiver funnel is provided.
- Under the funnel a pair of buckets are pivoted (the central point which
balances) in such away that when one bucket receives 0.25 mm (0.01”)
of rainfall it tips (to fall or turn over), discharging its contents into
reservoir bringing other bucket under funnel.
- Tipping of bucket completes an electric circuit causing the movement of
pen to mark on clock driven revolving drum which carries a record sheet
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

3. Weighing type rain gauges

- Consists of a receiver bucket supported by a spring or lever
balance or any other weighing mechanism.
- The movement of bucket due to its increasing weight is
transmitted to a pen which traces the record on a clock driven
chart.

Errors in precipitation measurement by gauges

- Instrumental errors
- Errors in scale reading
- Dent in receivers
- Dent in measuring cylinders
- About 0.25mm of water is initially required to wet the surface of gauge
- Rain gauges splash from collector
- Frictional effects
- Non verticality of measuring cylinders (10° inclination gives 1.5% less precipitation)
- Loss of water by evaporation
- Leakage in measuring cylinder
- Wind speed reduces measured amount of rain in the rain gauges.

Average precipitation over an area

To compute the average rainfall over a basin or catchment area, the rainfall is measured at several rain
gauge stations suitably located in the area. The no. of rain-gauge stations depends upon the area and
distribution of rainfall. If a basin or catchment area contains more than one rain gauge station, the
computation of average rainfall may be done by the following methods: (1) Arithmetic average method,
(2) Thiessen polygon method and (3) Isohyetal method.

1. Arithmetic average method

- Precipitation over area area is arithmetic average of gauge precipitation values.
- Simplest method but only applicable when the basin area is flat.
- All stations within practical limits are uniformly distributed over area.
- Rainfall is also nearly uniformly distributed over area.
𝑛
𝑃1 + 𝑃2 + 𝑃3 + 𝑃4 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛 𝑃𝑖
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = ∑
𝑛 𝑛
𝑖=1
Where P1, P2, P3, P4,…, Pn = recorded precipitation (mm) per gauge station
n = no. of stations
i = stations
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

2. Thiessen polygon method

- This method is a more common method of weighing the rain gauge observation
according to the area.
- It is also called Weighted Mean Method.
- Accurate than arithmetic average method.
- Average rainfall can be computed by the following expression.

How do you solve the Theissen Polygon Method

1. Join the adjacent rain-gauge stations.
2. Construct the perpendicular bisectors of each of these lines.
3. The polygon formed by the perpendicular bisectors around a station encloses an area which
is everywhere closer to that station than to any other station.
4. Find the area of each of these polygons shown hatched in the figure.
5. Compute the average precipitation using the given formula.

𝑛
𝑃1 𝐴1 + 𝑃2 𝐴2 + 𝑃3 𝐴3 + 𝑃4 𝐴4 + ⋯ + 𝑃𝑛 𝐴𝑛 𝑃𝑖 𝐴𝑖
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = ∑
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 + 𝐴3 + 𝐴4 + ⋯ + 𝐴𝑛 𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑖=1
Where:
P1, P2, P3, P4,…, Pn = recorded precipitation (mm) per gauge station
n = no. of stations
i = stations

3. Isohyetal method
- An isohyet is a line, on a rainfall map of the basin, joining places of equal rainfall readings.
- An isohyetal map showing contours of equal rainfall presents a more accurate picture of
the rainfall distribution over the basin.
- Average rainfall can be computed by the following
1. Plot gauge locations on a map.
2. Subjectively interpolate between rain amounts between gauges at a selected
interval.
3. Connect points of equal rain depth to produce lines of equal rainfall amounts
(isohyets).

𝑛 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝑗
( )𝐴𝑖𝑗
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑒 = ∑ 2
𝐴𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
𝑖=1,𝑗=2
CE141-2 Hydrology – Mapua University
Engr. L.A.V. Gallego

Radar Measurements
A weather radar is a type of radar used to locate precipitation, calculate its motion, estimate its type (rain,
snow, hail, etc.), and forecast its future position and intensity. Weather radars are mostly Doppler radars,
capable of detecting the motion of rain droplets in addition to the intensity of the precipitation. Both types
of data can be analyzed to determine the structure of storms and their potential to cause severe weather.

Satellite Measurements
A weather satellite is a type of satellite that is primarily used to monitor the weather and climate of the
Earth. These meteorological satellites, however, see more than clouds and cloud systems, like other types
of environmental information collected using weather satellites.