APES Study Guide Chapter 3
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Key Terms & Definitions
Aerobic respiration – The process by which organisms use oxygen to convert glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆) into
energy (ATP), carbon dioxide, and water.
Anaerobic respiration – The process of producing energy without oxygen; produces less ATP and may
release methane, alcohol, or lactic acid.
Aquatic – Relating to water; living or growing in water environments.
Aquifer – Underground layers of water-bearing rock that store groundwater.
Atmosphere – The thin layer of gases surrounding Earth that supports life.
Autotrophs (Producers) – Organisms (like plants) that make their own food using sunlight through
photosynthesis.
Biomass – The total mass of living matter in a given area.
Biosphere – The part of Earth where life exists, including land, water, and air.
Carbon cycle – The circulation of carbon among the atmosphere, oceans, soil, and living organisms.
Carnivores – Animals that eat other animals (meat-eaters).
Community – Populations of different species living and interacting in an area.
Consumers (Heterotrophs) – Organisms that obtain energy by feeding on others.
Decomposers – Organisms (like fungi and bacteria) that break down dead organisms and waste into
nutrients.
Detritus feeders (Detritivores) – Feed on dead organic matter (e.g., earthworms, crabs).
Ecology – The study of how organisms interact with each other and their environment.
Ecosystem – A community of organisms interacting with their physical environment.
Food chain – A linear sequence showing who eats whom in an ecosystem.
Food web – A complex network of interconnected food chains.
Geosphere – The solid part of Earth, including rocks, soil, and sediments.
Greenhouse effect – Natural warming of the Earth caused by greenhouse gases trapping heat.
Gross Primary Productivity (GPP) – The total amount of energy captured by producers during
photosynthesis.
Groundwater – Water stored beneath the Earth’s surface in soil and rock.
Herbivores – Animals that eat plants (e.g., cows, deer).
Heterotrophs – Consumers that cannot make their own food and rely on other organisms for energy.
Hydrologic (Water) cycle – The movement of water through the atmosphere, surface, and underground.
Hydrosphere – All the water on or near the Earth’s surface.
Natural greenhouse effect – The normal trapping of heat by the atmosphere that keeps Earth warm
enough for life.
Net Primary Productivity (NPP) – The energy remaining for consumers after producers use some for
respiration (NPP = GPP – respiration).
Nitrogen cycle – Movement of nitrogen through the atmosphere, soil, and living organisms.
Nutrient (Biogeochemical) cycles – Recycle essential elements like carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and
water through ecosystems.
Omnivores – Animals that eat both plants and animals (e.g., humans, bears).
Organism – Any living thing.
Photosynthesis – Process where producers use sunlight to convert CO₂ and H₂O into glucose and
oxygen.
Phosphorus cycle – Movement of phosphorus through rocks, soil, water, and organisms.
Population – A group of individuals of the same species in an area.
Primary consumers – Herbivores that feed directly on producers.
Producers – Autotrophs that create food from sunlight or chemicals.
Pyramid of energy flow – Illustrates how energy decreases as it moves through trophic levels.
Secondary consumers – Carnivores that eat herbivores.
Soil – A mix of minerals, organic matter, and living organisms supporting plant growth.
Soil profile – Cross-section of soil layers (horizons).
Stratosphere – Layer of the atmosphere above the troposphere containing the ozone layer.
Surface runoff – Water flowing over land into rivers, lakes, or oceans.
Tertiary consumers – Top predators that eat secondary consumers.
Trophic level – Each step in a food chain or web representing energy flow.
Troposphere – Lowest layer of the atmosphere where weather occurs.
Weathering – Breakdown of rocks into smaller particles through physical or chemical processes.
Objective Questions & Answers
1. Three harmful effects of clearing tropical rainforests:
○ Loss of biodiversity: Deforestation destroys habitats, leading to species extinction.
○ Disruption of water cycles: Fewer trees mean less transpiration, lowering rainfall and
drying the climate.
○ Increased atmospheric CO₂: Burning or decomposing trees releases stored carbon,
intensifying the greenhouse effect.
2. Layers of Earth:
○ Atmosphere: Gaseous layer of nitrogen, oxygen, and trace gases.
○ Troposphere: Closest to Earth’s surface; weather occurs here.
○ Stratosphere: Contains ozone that shields life from UV radiation.
○ Hydrosphere: All water on Earth (liquid, vapor, ice).
○ Geosphere: Solid Earth — rocks, minerals, and soil.
○ Biosphere: All living organisms interacting with other spheres.
Together, these form a unified life-support system; changes in one affect all others.
3. Three interconnected factors that sustain life:
○ Solar energy flow: Drives photosynthesis and weather patterns.
○ Nutrient cycling: Ensures materials like carbon and nitrogen are reused.
○ Gravity: Keeps atmosphere and water in place, enabling cycles to function.
4. Flow of energy to and from Earth:
Sunlight enters, drives photosynthesis, supports life, and exits as infrared heat.
Energy flows way; matter cycles repeatedly.
5. Greenhouse effect importance:
Greenhouse gases naturally trap heat, keeping Earth livable. Too many gases from burning fossil
fuels enhance this effect, causing global warming and climate change.
6. Living vs. nonliving ecosystem components:
○ Biotic (Living): Plants, animals, microbes.
○ Abiotic (Non-living): Sunlight, soil, water, air, temperature.
Abiotic factors shape which organisms can survive in an ecosystem.
7. Trophic level:
A feeding step in a food chain or web. Producers are the base, followed by consumers. Only
~10% of energy transfers to the next level due to energy loss as heat.
8. Types of organi[Link]
○ Producers: Create food (plants, algae).
○ Consumers: Eat other organisms (animals).
○ Decomposers: Break down organic matter (fungi, bacteria).
○ Detritus feeders: Consume waste or dead matter (earthworms).
Together, they maintain nutrient recycling.
9. Photosynthesis:
Converts CO₂ and water into glucose and O₂ using sunlight:
CO₂ + H₂O + sunlight → C₆H₁₂O₆ + O₂
Provides energy for ecosystems and oxygen for respiration.
10. Types of consumers:
○ Primary: Eat plants (rabbits, deer).
○ Secondary: Eat herbivores (frogs, foxes).
○ Tertiary: Top predators (hawks, sharks).
○ Omnivores: Eat both (humans, bears).
11. Importance of microbes:
Microbes are vital for decomposing organic matter, recycling nutrients, fixing nitrogen for plants,
and cleaning pollutants. Without them, nutrient cycles would stop.
12. Aerobic respiration:
The process of converting glucose and oxygen into ATP, CO₂, and water. It releases energy stored
during photosynthesis, fueling life processes.
13. Processes sustaining ecosystems:
Photosynthesis captures energy; respiration releases it. Together, they keep energy and matter
cycling through the biosphere.
14. Food chain vs. food web:
○ Food chain: Linear sequence of energy flow.
○ Food web: Interconnected food chains that make ecosystems more stable and resilient.
15. Energy flow and pyramid of energy:
As energy moves through trophic levels, most is lost as heat (10%), leaving less energy for
higher levels. The pyramid of energy shows this decreasing availability.
16. Gross vs. Net Primary Productivity:
○ GPP: Total energy captured by producers.
○ NPP: Energy available to consumers after plants use some for respiration.
NPP indicates an ecosystem’s capacity to support life.
17. Most productive ecosystems:
○ Land: Tropical rainforests, wetlands.
○ Aquatic: Coral reefs, estuaries.
These ecosystems have abundant sunlight, warmth, and nutrients.
18. Human use of NPP:
Humans use 25–40% of global NPP through agriculture, forestry, and development — leaving
less energy for other organisms.
19. Matter in an ecosystem:
Matter cycles continuously through biotic and abiotic parts — atoms are reused indefinitely.
20. Nutrient cycles:
Recycle essential elements (C, N, P, H₂O) that sustain life. Disruption of these cycles leads to
pollution or nutrient depletion.
21. How nutrient cycles connect life:
Past life forms (e.g., decomposed plants, fossil fuels) provide nutrients for current and future
generations — a link through time.
22. The hydrologic (water) cycle:
Water moves through evaporation, condensation, precipitation, infiltration, and runoff. Powered
by solar energy, it redistributes heat and purifies water.
23. Three major processes in the water cycle:
○ Evaporation (liquid → vapor)
○ Condensation (vapor → clouds)
○ Precipitation (rain/snow returns water to Earth)
Transpiration from plants also contributes moisture to the atmosphere.
24. Surface runoff:
Water flowing over land into rivers, lakes, or oceans — replenishing surface water but also
causing erosion if excessive.
25. Groundwater:
Water stored underground in pores and cracks of rock and soil; key freshwater source.
26. Aquifer:
Underground water reservoir; essential for human and ecosystem use but threatened by
over-pumping.
27. Available freshwater:
Only 0.024% of Earth’s total water is accessible as liquid freshwater in rivers, lakes, and
aquifers.
28. Unique properties of water:
○ High heat capacity (moderates climate).
○ Expands when frozen (ice floats).
○ Excellent solvent.
○ Strong cohesion/surface tension (capillary action in plants).
These properties make water vital for life.
29. Human alterations to the water cycle:
○ Deforestation reduces transpiration and rainfall.
○ Urbanization increases runoff and flooding.
○ Overuse depletes aquifers.
○ Pollution contaminates freshwater sources.
30. Rainforest clearing effects:
Loss of vegetation decreases moisture, raises temperatures, and disrupts local weather patterns.
31. Human impact on water cycle:
Pollution, water diversion, dam construction, and wetland destruction all alter the balance of the
hydrologic cycle.
32. Carbon, nitrogen, and phosphorus cycles:
○ Carbon: Burning fossil fuels increases CO₂, driving climate change.
○ Nitrogen: Fertilizers and combustion release excess nitrogen → eutrophication, acid rain.
○ Phosphorus: Runoff from farms → algal blooms and oxygen depletion in water bodies.
33. Thomas Lovejoy:
Conservation biologist who coined “biodiversity,” advocated for tropical forest preservation, and
studied ecosystem fragmentation.
34. How scientists study ecosystems:
○ Field research: Observing organisms in nature.
○ Lab experiments: Controlled environment testing.
○ Modeling: Using computer models to predict changes and trends.
35. Need for more ecosystem data:
Many ecosystems remain understudied. Better data helps prevent biodiversity loss and predict
the impact of climate change.
36. Holocene vs. Anthropocene:
○ Holocene: Stable climate following the Ice Age (~12,000 years).
○ Anthropocene: Current era dominated by human activity, deforestation, and pollution
altering natural processes.
37. Planetary boundary (tipping point):
Threshold beyond which an ecosystem may not recover — crossing one can cause irreversible
damage.
38. Boundaries exceeded:
○ Climate change
○ Biodiversity loss
○ Nitrogen cycle disruption
○ Land-use change
Surpassing these endangers Earth’s stability.
39. Tropical rainforest case study:
Demonstrates sustainability principles:
○ Solar energy: Drives photosynthesis.
○ Nutrient cycling: Decomposers recycle organic matter.
○ Biodiversity: Promotes resilience and ecosystem balance.
40. Energy and nutrient dependence:
(a) The flow of energy through the biosphere powers nutrient cycles.
(b) Gravity enables nutrients and water to move and return through precipitation and
sedimentation.
Together, these processes sustain life.
🌧️ Hydrological (Water) Cycle
● Description: The water cycle moves water between the atmosphere, land, and oceans.
● Main Processes:
○ Evaporation: Water changes from liquid to vapor.
○ Transpiration: Water released from plant leaves during photosynthesis.
○ Evapotranspiration: Combination of evaporation and transpiration.
○ Runoff: Water flows over land into rivers, lakes, and oceans.
● Watershed: The land area that drains into a body of water.
● Unique Properties of Water:
○ Liquid over a large temperature range
○ Changes temperature slowly (stores heat)
○ Requires lots of energy to evaporate
○ Dissolves many substances
○ Expands when frozen
● Driving Force: Evaporation and transpiration
● Human Impact: Limited freshwater (0.024%) and disruption from pollution, deforestation,
and overuse.
🌿 Carbon Cycle
● Description: Moves carbon between air, water, and land.
● Main Processes:
○ Photosynthesis: Plants take in CO₂ to make sugars.
○ Respiration: Organisms release CO₂ back into the atmosphere.
○ Sedimentation: Carbon forms rocks and fossil fuels over time.
○ Combustion: Burning fossil fuels releases CO₂.
● Carbon Sink: Oceans absorb CO₂ and form carbonic acid, lowering pH (ocean
acidification).
● Driving Force: Photosynthesis and respiration
● Human Impact: Burning fossil fuels and industry increase atmospheric CO₂ and climate
change.
🌾 Nitrogen Cycle
● Description: Moves nitrogen between the atmosphere, soil, and organisms.
● Main Processes:
○ Nitrogen Fixation: Converts N₂ gas into usable ammonia (NH₃) or ammonium
(NH₄⁺) by bacteria, lightning, or fires.
○ Nitrification: Ammonia → nitrite (NO₂⁻) → nitrate (NO₃⁻).
○ Assimilation: Producers absorb nitrogen into their tissues.
○ Ammonification: Decomposers convert organic nitrogen into ammonium.
○ Denitrification: Bacteria convert nitrate back into N₂ gas.
● Driving Force: Bacteria
● Human Impact:
○ Fertilizer use adds excess nitrogen → eutrophication (algae blooms, low oxygen,
dead zones).
○ Burning fuels produces nitric oxide → acid rain.
HELLO ARI SIGAL
🪨 Phosphorus Cycle
● Description: Moves phosphorus through rocks, soil, water, and living organisms.
● Main Processes:
○ Weathering or mining releases phosphate from rocks.
○ Producers use phosphates; it moves through food webs.
○ In water, it forms sediments that become new phosphate rocks.
● Driving Force: Erosion and weathering
● Human Impact: Overuse of phosphate fertilizers causes eutrophication in aquatic
systems.
🌋 Sulfur Cycle
● Description: Moves sulfur between rocks, the atmosphere, and living things.
● Main Processes:
○ Rocks release sulfate ions (SO₄²⁻) through weathering.
○ Producers take up sulfur, which moves through the food web.
○ Volcanoes, fossil fuel burning, and mining release sulfur dioxide (SO₂).
○ SO₂ combines with water → sulfuric acid (H₂SO₄) → returns as acid rain.
● Driving Force: Erosion and weathering
● Human Impact: Acid rain, pollution, and ecosystem damage.