Class 12 Biology – Inheritance and Variation (Notes)
1. Introduction
Inheritance and variation are fundamental concepts of genetics. Inheritance refers to the transmission
of traits from parents to offspring, while variation represents the differences among individuals of a
species.
2. Mendel’s Laws of Inheritance
• Law of Dominance: In a heterozygous condition, one allele dominates the other.
• Law of Segregation: Alleles separate during gamete formation.
• Law of Independent Assortment: Genes for different traits assort independently.
3. Important Terms
• Gene: A unit of inheritance.
• Allele: Alternative forms of a gene.
• Genotype: Genetic constitution of an organism.
• Phenotype: Observable traits.
• Homozygous: Identical alleles.
• Heterozygous: Different alleles.
4. Back Cross and Test Cross
• Back Cross: F1 hybrid × any parent.
• Test Cross: F1 hybrid × recessive parent (used to determine genotype).
5. Incomplete Dominance
When neither allele is completely dominant; F1 shows an intermediate phenotype.
Example: Snapdragon flower colour.
6. Codominance
Both alleles express equally.
Example: ABO blood groups (IA and IB are codominant).
7. Multiple Allelism
A gene with more than two alleles.
Example: ABO blood group system.
8. Sex Determination
Mechanisms include XX–XY (humans), ZZ–ZW (birds), haplo-diploidy (honeybees).
9. Mutation
Sudden heritable changes in DNA. Can be gene or chromosomal mutations.
10. Chromosomal Disorders
• Down Syndrome – Trisomy of chromosome 21
• Turner Syndrome – XO
• Klinefelter Syndrome – XXY
11. Genetic Disorders
• Sickle-cell anaemia – caused by point mutation
• Phenylketonuria – autosomal recessive disorder
These notes provide all essential points required for Class 12 board exams.