MODULE 1

⚡ Basic Electrical Concepts — Short Answers

1. Define resistance.

Resistance is the property of a material that opposes the flow of electric

current.

2. What is electromotive force (EMF)?

EMF is the energy supplied per unit charge by a source to move charges
around a circuit.

3. State the unit of current.

The unit of electric current is the ampere (A).

4. Define potential difference.

Potential difference is the work done to move one unit charge from one
point to another in an electric circuit.

5. State Ohm’s Law.

Ohm’s Law states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to the voltage across it, provided temperature remains
constant.

⚡ Power System Overview — Short Answers

6. Name the three main stages of a power system.

The three main stages are generation, transmission, and distribution.

7. What is meant by power generation?

Power generation is the process of converting energy from sources like

coal, water, wind, or solar into electrical energy.

8. Define transmission of electrical energy.

Transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical power from generating

stations to substations over long distances using high-voltage lines.

9. What is distribution in a power system?

Distribution is the final stage where electrical power from substations is

delivered to homes, industries, and consumers at safe, usable voltages.
10. Why is high voltage used in transmission?

High voltage is used to reduce current, which minimizes power loss ((P =
I^2R)) during long-distance transmission.

🔌 DC Circuits & Network Theorems — Short Answers

11. Classify electrical networks.

Electrical networks are classified as:

 Linear and Non-linear

 Passive and Active

 Unilateral and Bilateral

 Lumped and Distributed

 AC and DC networks

12. What is a series-parallel combination?

A series-parallel combination is a circuit where some components are

connected in series and others in parallel within the same network.

13. Define star-delta transformation.

Star-delta transformation is a mathematical method used to convert a

three-terminal star (Y) network into an equivalent delta (Δ) network, or
vice-versa, to simplify circuit analysis.

14. State Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).

KCL states that the algebraic sum of currents entering a node is equal to
the sum of currents leaving that node.

15. State Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).

KVL states that the algebraic sum of all voltages around any closed loop in
a circuit is zero.

16. What is the Superposition theorem?

The Superposition theorem states that in a linear circuit with multiple

independent sources, the total response is the sum of the individual
responses produced by each source acting alone.

17. What is loop analysis used for?

Loop analysis is used to determine unknown currents in a circuit by
applying KVL to independent loops.

MODULE 2

⚡ AC Fundamentals — Short Answers

18. How is a single-phase sinusoidal voltage generated?

A single-phase sinusoidal voltage is generated by rotating a coil uniformly

in a magnetic field, which induces a sinusoidal EMF according to Faraday’s
law

where (V_m) = maximum value, (\omega) = angular frequency, (\phi) =

phase angle.

20. Define cycle and period.

 Cycle: One complete set of positive and negative variations of a

waveform.

 Period (T): The time taken to complete one full cycle.

21. What is frequency?

Frequency is the number of cycles completed per second, measured in

hertz (Hz).

22. Define instantaneous value.

The instantaneous value is the value of a voltage or current at any specific

moment in time.

23. What is peak value?

Peak value is the maximum positive or negative value reached by a

sinusoidal quantity.

24. Define RMS value.

RMS (Root Mean Square) value is the effective value of an AC quantity
that produces the same heating effect as an equivalent DC value.

25. What is the average value?

The average value is the mean of all instantaneous values of a waveform

over one half cycle.

🔄 Phase & Phasors — Short Answers

28. What is phase?

Phase refers to the position of a waveform relative to time or another

waveform, usually measured in degrees or radians.

29. Define phase difference.

Phase difference is the angular displacement between two waveforms of

the same frequency.

30. What is meant by lagging quantity?

A lagging quantity is one that reaches its peak or zero value after a
reference waveform — common in inductive circuits.

31. What is meant by leading quantity?

A leading quantity reaches its peak or zero value before a reference

waveform — common in capacitive circuits.

32. What is in-phase condition?

In-phase condition occurs when two waveforms reach their maximum,

zero, and minimum values at the same time.

33. What is phasor representation?

Phasor representation is a graphical method of expressing sinusoidal

quantities as rotating vectors in the complex plane.
⚡ AC Circuits — Short Answers

35. What happens in a pure resistive AC circuit?

Voltage and current are in phase, and power is continuously consumed.

36. What happens in a pure inductive AC circuit?

Current lags voltage by 90°, and no real power is consumed — only

reactive power flows.

37. What happens in a pure capacitive AC circuit?

Current leads voltage by 90°, and no real power is consumed — only

reactive power flows.

38. Define impedance.

Impedance is the total opposition offered by a circuit to AC, combining

resistance and reactance.
It is denoted by (Z) and measured in ohms (Ω).
40. What is resonance in RLC circuits?

Resonance occurs when inductive reactance equals capacitive reactance

(X_L = X_C), causing the circuit to draw maximum current at a specific
frequency.

41. Define active power.

Active power is the actual power consumed by a circuit to do useful work,

like lighting or heating.
It is measured in watts (W).

42. Define reactive power.

Reactive power is the power that oscillates between source and load due
to inductance or capacitance, without doing useful work.
It is measured in volt-ampere reactive (VAR).

43. Define apparent power.

Apparent power is the total power supplied to a circuit, combining both

active and reactive power.
It is measured in volt-amperes (VA).

Formula -

( in picture 41, 42, 43 )

🔺 Three-Phase AC Circuits — Short Answers

44. What is a three-phase symmetrical system?

A system where all three voltages have equal magnitude and are 120°
apart in phase.

45. Define phase sequence.

Phase sequence is the order in which the voltages of a three-phase

system reach their maximum values.

46. What is a balanced load?

A balanced load draws equal current from all three phases and has equal
impedance in each phase.

47. What is an unbalanced load?

An unbalanced load has unequal impedances in the phases, causing

unequal currents and voltage drops.

48. Write voltage relation in star connection.

49. Write the current relation in a delta connection.

Ans: same as voltage relation, just replace ‘V’ by ‘I’

⚙️Electrical Machines — Short Answers

50. What is a transformer?

A transformer is a static device that transfers electrical energy between

circuits using electromagnetic induction.

51. State the EMF equation of a transformer.

: formula after question 62

  (E) = EMF

 (f) = frequency

 (N) = number of turns

 (\phi) = flux per pole

52. Define transformation ratio.

It is the ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage: ans after question

62

53. What are transformer losses?

 Core losses (hysteresis and eddy current)

 Copper losses (due to winding resistance)

54. Define voltage regulation of a transformer.

Voltage regulation is the change in secondary voltage from no-load to full-

load, expressed as a percentage of full-load voltage.

55. What is a DC motor?

A DC motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy using direct

current.

56. State the voltage equation of a DC motor.

Where: formula after question 62

 (V) = supply voltage

 (E) = back EMF

 (I_a) = armature current

 (R_a) = armature resistance

57. Name types of DC motors.

 Shunt motor

 Series motor

 Compound motor

58. What is a three-phase induction motor?

It is an AC motor that operates using a rotating magnetic field produced
by three-phase supply.

59. What is rotating magnetic field theory?

It states that a balanced three-phase supply produces a magnetic field

that rotates at synchronous speed.

60. Name types of three-phase induction motors.

 Squirrel cage induction motor

 Slip ring induction motor

61. What is a single-phase induction motor?

It is an AC motor that runs on single-phase supply and requires auxiliary

means to start.

62. Name applications of capacitor start motors.

Used in:

 Compressors

 Pumps

 Refrigerators

 Air conditioners

Formula of question no - 51, 52 , 56

🔌 Electronics — Short Answers

63. What are active components?

Active components are electronic devices that can control current flow
and require an external power source to operate.
Examples: Transistors, MOSFETs, ICs.
64. What are passive components?

Passive components do not require external power and cannot

amplify signals.
Examples: Resistors, capacitors, inductors.

65. Define P–N junction diode.

A P–N junction diode is a semiconductor device formed by joining P-type

and N-type materials, allowing current to flow only in one direction.

66. What is forward bias?

Forward bias occurs when the P-side is connected to +ve and the
N-side to –ve, allowing current to flow through the diode.

67. What is reverse bias?

Reverse bias occurs when the P-side is connected to –ve and the
N-side to +ve, blocking current flow (except a small leakage current).

68. State V–I characteristics of diode.

 In forward bias: current increases rapidly after threshold voltage.

 In reverse bias: only small leakage current flows until breakdown.

 The curve is non-linear.

69. What is a half-wave rectifier?

A half-wave rectifier uses a single diode to convert only one half-cycle

of AC into pulsating DC.

70. What is a full-wave rectifier?

A full-wave rectifier converts both half-cycles of AC into pulsating DC

using either a center-tap transformer or a bridge.

71. What is a bridge rectifier?

A bridge rectifier uses four diodes in a bridge arrangement to convert

both AC half-cycles into DC without needing a center-tap transformer.

72. Define LED.

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that emits light
when forward biased due to electron-hole recombination.

🔌 Electronics — Short Answers

73. Define a photo diode.

A photodiode is a semiconductor diode that generates current when

exposed to light, operating mainly in reverse bias.

74. What is a BJT?

A Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a current-controlled

semiconductor device that uses both electrons and holes as charge
carriers.

75. State types of BJT.

 NPN transistor

 PNP transistor

76. What is common emitter mode?

A transistor configuration where the emitter terminal is common to

both input and output circuits, providing high voltage and current
gain.

77. Define MOSFET.

A MOSFET (Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistor) is a

voltage-controlled device used for switching and amplification, with
very high input impedance.

78. State applications of MOSFET.

 Power supplies

 Switching circuits

 Amplifiers

 Motor drivers

 Digital logic circuits

79. What is VLSI technology?

VLSI (Very Large Scale Integration) is the technology of integrating

thousands to millions of transistors on a single chip to build complex
ICs.

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🔢 Digital Electronics — Short Answers

80. Name four number systems.

 Binary

 Decimal

 Octal

 Hexadecimal

Convert by multiplying each bit with 2^n and adding all values.
Example:

1011_2 = 1.2^3 + 0.2^3 + 1.2^1 + 1.2^0 = 11_10

82. Convert decimal to binary.

Divide the number by 2 repeatedly and read remainders bottom-up.

Example:
[ 13_10 = 1101_2 ]

83. Perform binary addition.

Basic rules:

 (0+0=0)

 (0+1=1)

 (1+1=10) (carry 1)
  (1+1+1=11) (carry 1)

84. Define AND gate.

A logic gate that outputs 1 only when all inputs are 1.

85. Define OR gate.

A logic gate that outputs 1 when any input is 1.

86. Define NOT gate.

A logic gate that inverts the input:

 Input 0 → Output 1

 Input 1 → Output 0

87. Define XOR gate.

A logic gate that outputs 1 only when inputs are different.

88. Define universal gates.

NAND and NOR gates are universal because any logic circuit can be
built using only them.

89. State De-Morgan’s theorem.

1. ((A .B)' = A' + B')

2. ((A + B)' = A' . B')

90. What is a half adder?

A combinational circuit that adds two bits and produces Sum and Carry.

91. What is a full adder?

A combinational circuit that adds three bits (A, B, Carry-in) and produces
Sum and Carry-out.

92. Define SR flip-flop.

A flip-flop with Set (S) and Reset (R) inputs used for storing 1 bit.

93. Define JK flip-flop.

A flip-flop with inputs J and K that eliminates the invalid state of SR and
supports toggling.

94. Define T flip-flop.

A flip-flop that toggles its output when T = 1; holds state when T = 0.

95. Define D flip-flop.

A flip-flop that stores the value of D input on the clock edge.

96. What is a microprocessor?

A microprocessor is the CPU on a single chip, used for computation and

control tasks.

97. What is a microcontroller?

A microcontroller is a complete system on a chip containing CPU,

memory, and I/O ports.

98. What is the IC fabrication process?

It is the process of manufacturing integrated circuits using steps like

oxidation, photolithography, doping, etching, and metallization.

Operational Amplifiers & Instruments — Short Answers

99. Draw block diagram of op-amp.

A block diagram contains:

 Differential amplifier (input stage)

 Gain stage

 Level shifting stage

 Output stage
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100. State ideal parameters of op-amp.

 Infinite input impedance

 Zero output impedance

 Infinite open-loop gain

 Infinite bandwidth

 Zero offset voltage

 Infinite slew rate

 Zero noise

101. State practical parameters of op-amp.

 Very high input impedance

 Low output impedance

 High open-loop gain

 Limited bandwidth

 Small offset voltage

 Limited slew rate

 Some noise present

102. What is an inverting amplifier?

An amplifier where the input signal is applied to the inverting terminal

(–), producing an output that is 180° out of phase with the input.

103. What is a non-inverting amplifier?

An amplifier where the input signal is applied to the non-inverting

terminal (+), producing an output in phase with the input.

104. What is the use of a digital multimeter?

A DMM is used to measure voltage, current, resistance, and

sometimes frequency, capacitance, and continuity.
105. What is a function generator?

An instrument that generates different waveforms such as sine, square,

triangular, and pulse signals at various frequencies.

106. What is a digital storage oscilloscope (DSO)?

A DSO captures, stores, and displays electrical waveforms digitally,

allowing measurement of voltage, frequency, time period, rise time,
and more.

form.