Chapter 7.

Wave Optics
Class 12 Physics

Maharashtra State Board

Dr. Mangesh Madhao Bhave

Kuthe Patil Jr. College, Desaiganj
 8. Wave Optics

7.1. Introduction: either side of the normal.

i) Optics is a branch of physics that deals with the b. Snell's law: Angle of incidence (θ1 in a

study of light — its generation, propagation, medium of refractive index n1) and angle of

interaction with matter, and detection. refraction (θ2 in a medium of refractive index

ii) Light travels in a straight line while travelling n2) are related by Snell’s law, given by

through a uniform and homogeneous medium. 𝒏𝒏𝟏𝟏 𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝒔𝜽𝜽𝟏𝟏 = 𝒏𝒏𝟐𝟐 𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬𝐬 𝜽𝜽𝟐𝟐
iii)The path of light is called a ray of light.
iv) When light hits a different medium, it is either
reflected or refracted, changing its direction and
continuing in a new straight path.
v) Reflection of light is the phenomenon where light
rays bounce back after striking a surface, typically
a smooth and polished one, like a mirror.
vi) Law of reflection:
a. The incident ray, the reflected ray and the 7.2. Nature of light
normal to the boundary surface at the point of 7.2.1: Newton's corpuscular theory
incidence are in the same plane. a) Assumptions:
b. Angles of incidence and reflection are equal (i) Light is made up of particles, i.e., corpuscles,
which are hard, elastic and massless.
(ii) A light source emits corpuscles that travel
in straight lines without external forces.
(iii) Light particles collide elastically with
reflective surfaces, following the laws of
reflection.
(iv) Refraction occurs when changes in the
vii) Laws of refraction: Refraction is the change attractive force between corpuscles and
in the direction of a ray of light passing from medium particles change the direction of the
one medium to another. corpuscles.
viii) For the refraction of light while travelling (v) Light of different colours corresponds to
from medium 1 to medium 2. corpuscles of various sizes.
a. Refracted ray lies in the plane formed by the (vi) According to this theory, the velocity of
incident ray and the normal drawn at the light is larger in the denser medium than in
point of incidence, and the two rays are on the rarer medium; experimentally, it has been

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 proved wrong. shadows, reflection, and refraction because the
(vii) The study of optical phenomena under the wavelength of light is much smaller than the
assumption that light travels in a straight line surfaces and objects involved, commonly found
as a ray is called ray optics or geometrical in labs and daily life.
optics, as geometry is used in this study. 7.2.3. Maxwell's Electromagnetic Theory:
7.2.2. Wave Nature of Light: (i) According to this theory, light is an
To overcome the challenges associated with electromagnetic wave. Experimentally, it is
corpuscular theory, the Dutch physicist C. observed that the velocity of light is equal to the
Huygens (1629-1695) proposed in 1668 that light velocity of electromagnetic waves.
is a wave. (ii) They travel even in a vacuum.
(i) Huygens proposed that light is a wave generated  H. Hertz confirmed the presence and speed of
by the vibrations of particles within the radio waves, matching that of visible light, in
medium. the late 19th century.
(ii) For the propagation of light through a vacuum,  Michelson and Morley's experiments to detect
Huygens suggested the existence of an ether were unsuccessful.
imaginary medium called the luminiferous  Albert Einstein dismissed the existence of ether
ether. However, no practical evidence to prove in 1905 with his special theory of relativity,
the existence of ether. based on the constancy of light speed.
(iii) And thus, it was difficult to accept the wave 7.2.4. Dual Nature of Light:
concept.  In the early 20th century, light was recognised
(iv) In the nineteenth century, new light to have a dual nature, exhibiting both particle
phenomena such as interference, diffraction, and wave properties depending on the situation.
and polarisation were discovered, which could 7.3. Light as a Wave:
not be explained by corpuscular theory but
(i) Light is an electromagnetic wave made of
required wave theory.
transverse oscillating electric and magnetic
(v) Huygens' theory successfully explained these
fields that are perpendicular to each other and
phenomena and clarified reflection, refraction,
the direction of the wave.
and image formation by mirrors and lenses,
(ii) These waves can travel through a vacuum
establishing it as the correct theory of light.
without a material medium.
(vi) Wave theory shows that light refracts towards
(iii) The speed of light in a medium (v) is affected
the normal when its velocity is slower in a
by its refractive index (n), which depends on the
denser medium than in a rarer one.
permeability and permittivity of the medium.
(vii) The wave nature of light explains all visual
(iv) The refractive index is the ratio of the speed of
effects, and the study of these phenomena is
light in a vacuum (c) to that in the medium (v).
known as wave optics. 𝒄𝒄
𝒏𝒏 =
(viii) Geometrical optics effectively explains 𝐯𝐯

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(v) The refractive index of a vacuum is 1, while not produce light of their own but receive
that of air can be approximated as 1. light from some other source and either
(vi) Electromagnetic (EM) waves range from less reflect or scatter it around.
than a femtometre (10-15 m) to over a kilometre (ii) Examples include the moon, the planets,
in wavelength. objects like humans, animals, plants, etc.,
(vii) EM waves are categorised by increasing which we see due to reflected light.
wavelength as gamma rays, X-rays, ultraviolet, (iii) Many of the sources that we see around are
visible, infrared, microwave, and radio waves. secondary sources, and most of them are
(viii) The visible spectrum spans 400 to 700 nm, extended sources.
with our eyes perceiving different wavelengths 7.4.2. Wavefront:
as distinct colours, from violet (shortest) to red (i) The continuous locus of all points of a medium
(longest). having the same phase at a given instant of time
(ix) White light is made up of waves with different is called a wavefront.
wavelengths. (ii) It is an imaginary surface.
(x) The refractive index of a medium depends on (iii) The direction of propagation of the wave is
the wavelength used, causing different colours perpendicular to the wavefronts, i.e., along the
to refract at varying angles (except at normal radii of the circle.
incidence). (iv) The speed with which the wavefronts move is
(xi) This results in the separation of colours in the speed of the wave.
white light as it passes through a transparent Types of Wavefronts:
medium, creating a spectrum and a rainbow. a) Spherical wavefronts:
7.4. Huygens’ Theory:  When the point source is an isotropic

7.4.1: Primary sources and Secondary sources: medium, sending out waves in three

 Primary sources: dimensions, the wavefronts are spheres

(i) The sources that emit light on their own are centred on the source. Such a wavefront is

called primary sources. called a spherical wavefront.

(ii) This emission of light is due to  Example: A Candle flame produces a

(a) high temperatures spherical wavefront.

(e.g., the Sun, stars, heated objects, flames),

(b) electric currents
(e.g., fluorescent lights, TVs), or
(c)chemical/nuclear reactions
(e.g., fireworks, nuclear plants).
(iii) Light originates in these sources.
 Secondary sources:
(i) Secondary sources are those sources that do

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b) Plane wavefronts: and is thus the envelope of the secondary
 A wavefront originating from a point wavelets in the forward direction.
(iii) The wavelets travelling in the backwards
source of light at infinite distance is called
direction are ineffective”.
a plane wavefront. (i) Construction of a Plane Wavefront:
 Example: The light from the Sun reaches (i) Consider a plane wavefront AB
the surface of the Earth in the form of a (representing parallel rays) at time t = 0, as
shown in the figure.
plane wavefront.
(ii) According to Huygens’ principle, each
point on this wavefront will act as a
secondary source of light and will emit
spherical wavelets.
(iii) These wavelets travel in the forward
direction only, as backward wavelets are
ineffective.
(iv) The wavelets will take the shape of
hemispheres, and later, t = T, the radius of
these hemispheres will be vT, where v is the
c) Cylindrical wavefront:
speed of light.
 A wavefront originating from a linear (v) At time T, the wavefront will create the
source (slit) of light at a finite distance is envelope of all hemispherical wavelets,
called a cylindrical wavefront. resulting in a plane A’B’.

 Example: A tube light emits a

cylindrical wavefront.

 Construction of a Spherical Wavefront:

7.4.3. Huygens’ Principle: (i) Consider a spherical wavefront AB at time
t = 0, as shown in the figure.
Statement:
(ii) According to Huygens’ principle, each
(i) Each point on a wavefront acts as a point on this wavefront will act as a
secondary source of light, emitting secondary source of light and will emit
secondary light waves called wavelets in all spherical wavelets.
directions, which travel at the speed of light (iii) These wavelets travel in the forward
in the medium. direction only, as backward wavelets are
(ii) The new wavefront can be obtained by ineffective.
taking the envelope of these secondary (iv) The wavelets will take the shape of
wavelets travelling in the forward direction, hemispheres, and later, t = T, the radius of

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 these hemispheres will be vT, where v is the (viii) The radii of wavelets from points between A
speed of light. and C decrease from vT to 0, forming the
(v) At time T, the wavefront will create the
reflected wavefront.
envelope of spherical wavefront A’B’.
(ix) This is shown by EC, the common tangent to
the reflected wavelet from A and the secondary
wavelets from points between A and C.
(x) The arrow AE shows the direction of
propagation of the reflected wave.
(xi) Draw AP normal to the surface MN
𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 ⊥ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 ⊥ 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
∴ ∠𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅 = ∠𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = ∠𝑖𝑖 − − − (1)
(xii) In ∆ABC and ∆AEC
7.5. Reflection of light at a plane surface: ∠ABC = ∠AEC = 900
(i) Consider a plane wavefront AB perpendicular to AE = AC = common side
the plane of paper incident on a mirror MN at an AE = BC = vT
angle of incidence i to the normal. (The distance travelled by light in the same
medium in the same time)
∴ ∆ABC ≅ ∆AEC
∴ ∠BAC = ∠ACE = ∠i − − − (2)
(xiii) ∠PAE = ∠r = angle of reflection
(xiv) As AE ⊥ CE and AP ⊥ AC
∴ ∠PAE = ∠ACE = ∠r − − − (3)
Eq.(2) and (3) show that, ∠𝒊𝒊 = ∠𝒓𝒓
Similarly, the incident ray, the normal and the
(ii) RA and QB show the direction of incidence.
reflected ray are in the same plane, which is the plane
(iii) At time t = 0, the incident wavefront AB
of the paper.
touches the reflective surface at point A.
This proves the laws of reflection of light from a plane
(iv) Point B will touch the reflecting surface at C
surface based on Huygens’ principle.
after a time t = T.
 Lateral inversion is the phenomenon where a
(v) From time t = 0 to T, points on the incident
mirror image reverses the left and right sides of an
wavefront sequentially reach the reflecting
object. What is on the left side of the object
surface, generating secondary wavelets that
appears on the right side of its mirror image, and
spread out in hemispherical shapes.
vice versa. This effect is commonly seen in plane
(vi) The hemispheres for reflection are on the same
mirrors and is due to the way light reflects off a
side of the mirror.
surface.
(vii) At time T, the wavelet from point A has a radius
of vT, while the radius from point C is zero.
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7.6. Refraction of Light at a Plane sin i
v1 T�
AC = v1
= − − − (3)
Boundary Between Two Media: sin r v2 T� v2
AC
We have,
(i) Consider a wavefront AB, incident on a plane
c c
boundary MN, separating two uniform and n1 = and n2 = ,
v1 v2
optically transparent media. where c is speed of light in air
c c
∴ v1 = and v2 =
n1 n2
Here, n1 and n2 are the absolute refractive indices of
media 1 and 2, respectively.
Eq.(3) becomes,
sin i c�n1 n2
= =
sin r c�n2 n1
sin i n2
= ⇒ n1 sini = n2 sinr
sin r n1
This proves that the law of refraction is also called
(ii) At time t = 0, A has just reached the boundary Snell’s law.
surface, while B reaches the surface at C at a later Also, it is clear from the figure that the incident
time t = T. and refracted rays and the normal to the boundary
(iii) Let v1 be the speed of light in medium 1 and v2 surface are in the same plane.
in medium 2. Thus, BC = v1 T  Case1:
(iv) At time t =T, the radius (AE) of the secondary if v1 > v2 ⇒ n1 ˂ n2 then ∠i > ∠r
wavelet emitted from A in medium 2 will be v2T. This indicates that the refracted ray will bend
(v) The refracted wavefront will be the envelope of towards the normal while going from an optically
wavelets successively emitted by all the points rarer medium.
between A and C between time t = 0 and t = T.  Case1:
(vi) CE is the tangent to the secondary wavelet if v2 > v1 ⇒ n2 ˂ n1 then ∠r > ∠i
emitted from A. This indicates that the refracted ray will bend
(vii) PP’ shows the normal to the boundary at A. away from the normal while going from an
′
∠A AP = ∠BAC = the angle of incidence(i) optically denser medium.
∠PAE = ∠ACE = angle of refraction(r)
 Width of incident and refracted plane
In ΔABC,
wavefront:
BC v1 T
sin i = = − − − (1) 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑖𝑖 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴
AC AC =
𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝑟𝑟 𝐶𝐶𝐶𝐶
In ΔAEC
AE v2 T  Dependence of Wavelength on the
sin r = = − − − (2) Refractive Index of the Medium:
AC AC
i) Consider monochromatic light incident
normally on the boundary PQ between a rarer
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 and a denser medium. T is the time in which the wavefront covers the
ii) The wavefronts AB, CD, and EF are distance λ1, then
separated by distance A1, representing the 𝜆𝜆1
𝑇𝑇 = − − − (1)
wavelength(λ1) in the first medium. v1

iii) After refraction, the wavefronts become iii) Similarly, for the second medium,

A'B', C'D', and E'F'. 𝜆𝜆2

𝑇𝑇 = − − − (2)
v2
iv) In the denser medium, light travels more
From Eq. (1) and (2),
slowly, resulting in the wavefronts being
𝜆𝜆1 𝜆𝜆2 v2
closer together, with the distance between = ⇒ 𝜆𝜆2 = 𝜆𝜆1 � � − − − (3)
v1 v2 v1
them now A2, equal to the wavelength (λ2) in 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
∴ v1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 v2 =
the second medium. 𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛2
Here, n1 and n2 are the absolute refractive indices
of media 1 and 2, respectively.
v2 𝑐𝑐⁄𝑛𝑛2 𝑛𝑛1
= = − − − (4)
v1 𝑐𝑐⁄𝑛𝑛1 𝑛𝑛2
From Eq. (3) and (4),
𝑛𝑛1
𝜆𝜆2 = 𝜆𝜆1 � � − − − (5)
𝑛𝑛2
Assuming the first medium is a vacuum, then
λ1 = λ0 and n1 = 1.

v) Thus, λ2 will be smaller than the wavelength For the second medium, n2 = n and λ2 = λ.

in the first medium. Eq.(5) becomes

1
 Demonstration of frequency remain same in 𝜆𝜆 = 𝜆𝜆0 � � − − − (6)
𝑛𝑛
refration: iv) Let ν1 and v2 be the frequencies in the first and
second medium, respectively. Then,
v1 v2
ν1 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 ν2 =
𝜆𝜆1 𝜆𝜆2
𝜈𝜈1 v1 𝜆𝜆2 v1 𝜆𝜆2
∴ = × = � � × � � − −(7)
𝜈𝜈2 𝜆𝜆1 v2 v2 𝜆𝜆1
From Eq. (3) and (7),
𝜈𝜈1 𝜆𝜆1 𝜆𝜆2
∴ = � � × � � = 1 − −(8)
𝜈𝜈2 𝜆𝜆2 𝜆𝜆1
i) Let the wavefront AB reach the boundary ∴ 𝝂𝝂𝟏𝟏 = 𝝂𝝂𝟐𝟐 = 𝝂𝝂
surface PQ at time t= 0, and the next wavefront This demonstrates that the frequency of a wave
CD, which is at distance A1 from AB, reach PQ remains unchanged while going from one medium
at time t= T. to another.
ii) As the speed of the wave is v1 in medium 1 and • The frequency of a wave is constant when it

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 moves between media, but its speed and vi) The figure shows unpolarized light
wavelength change, inversely related to the coming towards us or going away from us.
refractive index of the second medium
compared to the first.
7.7. Polarisation:
a) Unpolarised light:
i) Light is an electromagnetic wave, and its
electric (E) and magnetic (B) field vectors
are perpendicular to each other and to the
direction of propagation.
b) Polarised Light:
i) If the vibrations of the electric field vector
(E) in a light wave are confined to a single
plane containing the direction of
propagation, the light wave is said to be
plane-polarised light or linearly polarised
light.
ii) The figure shows polarised light coming
ii) When one atom emits a wave along the towards us or going away from us with the
x-axis, its electric field may be along the y- electric field along the horizontal
axis, and the magnetic field along the z- direction.
axis.
iii) If another atom emits a wave along the
x-axis, the electric field can point in any iii) Polariser allows only those light waves

direction within the y-z plane, with the that have their electric field along a

magnetic field perpendicular to it. particular direction to pass through and

iv) Electric fields from light sources like the block all other waves that have their

Sun or a light bulb, emitted along the x- electric field in other directions.

axis, radiate in all directions within the y-z iv) A polaroid is a kind of synthetic plastic

plane, with magnetic fields perpendicular sheet that is a polariser.

to them. v) The particular direction along which the

v) The light having vibrations of the electric electric field of the emergent wave is

field vector in all possible directions oriented is called the polarising axis of

perpendicular to the direction of wave the polariser.

propagation is called the ordinary or vi) When unpolarized light passes through a

unpolarised light. polariser, the emergent light is plane

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 polarised. where E0 is the amplitude of the wave
vii) The plane ABCD containing the electric iii) The intensity of the wave is proportional to
field vector of plane-polarised light is |𝐸𝐸|2 .
called the plane of vibration. iv) The electric field can point in any direction
within the y-z plane. We will examine how
this wave travels through two polarisers.

v) Let us consider a particular wave having its

electric field at an angle 𝜙𝜙 to the axis of the
viii) The plane perpendicular to the plane of first polariser.
the vibration (horizontal plane) is called vi) The component E0 cos𝜙𝜙 will go through the
the plane of polarisation. first polariser, while the normal component
ix) When polarised light passes through a
E0 sin𝜙𝜙 will be blocked.
second polariser at a right angle to the first,
vii) The intensity of this wave after passing
no light emerges.
through the polariser will be proportional to
x) This occurs because the second polariser
the square of its amplitude
only allows waves with an electric field
𝐼𝐼 ∝ |𝐸𝐸0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|2 − − − (2)
aligned with its axis.
viii) For an unpolarized incident wave, 𝜙𝜙 can
xi) If the second polariser is angled less than
take any value from 0 to 180 degrees.
90° to the first, some of the polarised light
ix) Therefore, to find the intensity of the plane-
can pass through, though each polariser
polarised wave that comes out of the first
reduces the light's intensity.
polariser, we need to average|𝐸𝐸0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐|2
xii) We have described polarisation using the
over all values of between 0 and 180
electric field; it can also be explained with
degrees.
the magnetic field. 1
x) The average value of 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜙𝜙 = 2
c) Polarisation of light through a polariser:
Thus,
i) Consider an unpolarized wave having
1
angular frequency ω and wave vector k 𝐼𝐼 ∝ 2 |𝐸𝐸0 |2 − − − (3)

(=2π/λ), travelling along the x-direction. This shows that the intensity of an
ii) The magnitude of the electric field of unpolarized wave is reduced by half after
unpolarised light is given by passing through a polariser.
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 sin(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) − − − (1)
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d) Malus’ law: while passing through the second polariser.
i) Let us now consider the linearly polarised Case 2: if θ = 900, cos 90 = 0, 𝐼𝐼2 = 0
wave emerging from the first polariser. Here, no light emerges from the second polariser.
ii) Let us assume that the polarised wave has its  = 0o and 90o are known as parallel and cross
�⃗1 ) along the y-direction.
electric field (𝐸𝐸 settings of the two polarisers.
7.7.1 Polarisation by Reflection:

iii)We can write the electric field as

�⃗1 = 𝚥𝚥̂𝐸𝐸10 sin(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) − − − (1)
𝐸𝐸
where E10 is the amplitude of the polarised
wave i) Consider unpolarized light from a medium
iv) The intensity of the polarised wave after the with refractive index n1 incident on a boundary
first polariser is given by perpendicularly.
𝐼𝐼1 ∝ |𝐸𝐸10 |2 − − − (2) ii) When light incident on a boundary at an angle
v) If this wave goes through a second polariser, between two materials with refractive indices
which has its polarisation axis at an angle θ n1 and n2, some is refracted, and some is
to the y-direction, only the component reflected.
E10 cos𝜃𝜃 will pass through. iii) The incident wave is unpolarized, with its
vi) The amplitude of the polarised wave is electric field divided into two equal
𝐸𝐸20 = E10 cos𝜃𝜃 − − − (3_ components: one parallel to the paper (double
vii) Thus, the intensity of the polarised wave arrows) and one perpendicular (dots).
after the second polariser is iv) Reflected and refracted rays typically have
𝐼𝐼2 ∝ |𝐸𝐸20 |2 unequal strengths of these parts, resulting in
𝐼𝐼2 ∝ |𝐸𝐸10 |2 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜃𝜃 partial polarisation.
From Eq. (2), we get v) D. Brewster found in 1812 that at a specific
𝐼𝐼2 ∝ 𝐼𝐼1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 𝜃𝜃 angle of incidence B, the reflected wave
This is Malus’ law, which gives the intensity of a becomes fully plane polarised, with its electric
linearly polarised wave after it passes through a field perpendicular to the paper, while the
polariser. refracted wave remains partially polarised.
Case 1: if θ = 00, cos θ = 1, 𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼1 vi) This angle is called Brewster's angle, where the
Here, the polarisation axes of the two polarisers refracted and reflected rays are perpendicular
are parallel, and the intensity does not change to each other.

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Brewster's Law Statement: from reflective surfaces using special
When an unpolarized light of known wavelength is sunglasses with polaroids.
incident on a transparent substance surface, it  These sunglasses reduce the intensity of
experiences maximum polarisation at the angle of polarised light reflecting into the eyes.
incidence whose tangent is the refractive index of the  Additionally, they also reduce unpolarized
substance for the wavelength. light from sunlight or artificial sources by half.
Proof:  This effect is effective only on nonmetallic
surfaces.
7.7.2. Polarisation by Scattering:

From the law of reflection, the angle of incidence

is equal to the angle of reflection, i.e. i = θB
From the diagram, the angle of refraction is  Sunlight interacts with air molecules and dust,

180 = 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 + 90 + 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 causing scattering. This makes the sky appear

𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 = 90 − 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 − − − (1) blue, as blue light scatters more than other

According to the law of refraction (Snell’s law), colours.

𝑛𝑛1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 = 𝑛𝑛2 sin 𝜃𝜃𝑟𝑟 − − − (2)  Without scattering, the sky would be dark

Here, n1 and n2 are the absolute refractive indices except when looking at the Sun, allowing us to

of media 1 and 2, respectively. see stars during the day.

From Eq. (1) and (2), we get  Scattered sunlight is partially polarised, with

𝑛𝑛1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 = 𝑛𝑛2 sin(90 − 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 ) − − − (3) polarisation levels varying by the scattering
angle.
Since, sin(90 − 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 ) = cos 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵
 At a 90-degree angle, the light is plane
Eq.(3) becomes,
polarised, resulting in varying degrees of
𝑛𝑛1 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 = 𝑛𝑛2 cos 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵
𝑛𝑛2 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 polarisation in scattered light across the sky.
= = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵
𝑛𝑛1 cos 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 7.8. Interference:
𝑛𝑛2 a) Superposition of waves:
tan 𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 =
𝑛𝑛1
When two or more waves overlap, the resultant
𝑛𝑛2
𝜃𝜃𝐵𝐵 = 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡−1 � � displacement of a particle of the medium, at a
𝑛𝑛1
This is Brewster’s law. given point, is the sum of the displacements of

 Polarisation through reflection reduces glare the particle produced by individual waves, as if
11 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 each wave were the only one that is present. patterns.
b) Interference of water waves: iii) However, we don't observe interference
patterns because the sources emit waves of
varying frequencies and are not in phase.
iv) This constant shifting of interference patterns
prevents us from perceiving any stable pattern.
v) To observe interference over time, we need two
coherent light sources with the same frequency
and a constant phase relationship.
vi) Independent primary sources cannot provide
i) S1 and S2 are in-phase water wave sources with this consistency, so we typically derive two
the same wavelength and amplitude. secondary sources from one primary source, as
ii) Crests are shown as solid circles and troughs as is done in Young's double slit experiment.
dashed circles.
7.8.2: Young’s Double slit Experiment:
iii)Dark dots mark points where crests of S1 align
with crests of S2, similarly for troughs, Construction:
indicating maximum displacement, and there i) In this experiment, a plane wavefront is
will be constructive interference. directed at an opaque screen AB with two
iv) Lighter dark dots indicate points where a crest identical narrow slits S1 and S2.
of S1 aligns with a trough of S2 and vice versa,
resulting in zero displacement, and there will
be destructive interference.
v) Thus, along specific lines from the midpoint of
S1S2, constructive and destructive interference
occur.
vi) This phenomenon is observed in both water
and sound waves.
vii) It was observed for light waves in the laboratory
for the first time by Thomas Young (1773-1829)
in the year 1801. ii) This wavefront can be produced by placing a
linear source S far from the screen or at the
7.8.1. Coherent Sources of Light:
focus of a nearby convex lens, resulting in
i) Two sources which emit waves of the same
parallel rays and a plane wavefront.
frequency having a constant phase difference,
iii)The figure illustrates a cross-section of the
independent of time, are called coherent sources.
setup, with the slits perpendicular to the paper.
ii) Light waves from different sources always
iv) For the best results, the slits should be 2-4 mm
overlap, which should cause interference
apart. An observation screen PQ is located
12 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 behind AB. v) Consider a point P on the screen at a distance y
v) We assume the slits S1 and S2 are equidistant from O’ (y ˂˂ D).
from S, ensuring the wavefronts reaching them vi) The two light waves from S1 and S2 reach P
are always in phase. along paths S1P and S2P, respectively.
Working: vii) Let us now find the path difference (∆l) from
i) When rays from slits S1 and S2 act as secondary the diagram,
light sources, emitting cylindrical wavelets to
the right of AB.
ii) These sources produce waves that are always
in phase due to the incoming plane wavefront.
iii)The overlapping crests and troughs of the
wavelets interfere constructively along lines
connecting the black dots ( ), resulting in bright
spots on the screen.
iv) The images of the slits are perpendicular to the
Path difference (∆𝑙𝑙) = S1 P − S2 P − − − (1)
paper, with a rotated image plane shown on the
In ∆S1 S1′ P and∆S2 S2′ P by pythagorus thorem,
right.
(S2 P)2 = (S2 S2′ )2 + (S2′ P)2
v) Between these bright lines, hollow circles (O)
(S2 P)2 = D2 + (PO′ + O′ S2 )2
indicate where crests and troughs cancel each
d 2
other out (zero intensity), creating dark images 2 2
(S2 P) = D + �y + �
2
of the slits on screen PQ. These dark and bright
2 2
d 2
2
d
areas are called fringes, forming the (S2 P) = �D + y + � � + 2y � ��
2 2
interference pattern. d
(S2 P)2 = �D2 + y 2 + + yd� − − − (2)
 Analytical treatment of interference bands: 4
Similarly, we get,
(Theory of interference bands)
(S1 P)2 = (S1 S1′ )2 + (S1′ P)2
i) Two narrow coherent light sources are
(S1 P)2 = D2 + (PO′ + O′ S1 )2
obtained by wavefront splitting as
monochromatic light of wavelength λ emerges d 2
(S1 P)2 = D2 + �y − �
2
out of two narrow and closely spaced, parallel
d 2 d
slits S1 and S2 of equal widths. 2 2 2
(S1 P) = �D + y + � � − 2y � ��
2 2
ii) The separation S1S2 = d is very small.
d
iii)The interference pattern is observed on a screen (S1 P)2 = �D2 + y 2 + − yd� − − − (3)
4
placed parallel to the plane of paper and at a From Eq.(2) and (3), we can write,
considerable distance D (D >> d) from the slits. d
(S2 P)2 − (S1 P)2 = �D2 + y 2 + + yd�
iv) OO’ is the perpendicular bisector of segment 4
d
S1S2. − �D2 + y 2 + 4 − yd�
13 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 d 1
(S2 P)2 − (S1 P)2 = D2 + y 2 + + yd Path difference (∆𝑙𝑙) = �𝑛𝑛 − � 𝜆𝜆 − − − (9)
4 2
d
−D2 − y 2 − 4 + yd where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ….

(S2 P)2 − (S1 P)2 = 2yd From eq.(6) and (9), we get,
yd 1
Using (a2 − b2 ) = (a + b)(a − b) = �𝑛𝑛 − � 𝜆𝜆
D 2
(S2 P − S1 P)(S2 P + S1 P) = 2yd
For nth dark band,
2yd
(S2 P − S1 P) = − − − (4) 1 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
(S2 P + S1 P) 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 = �𝑛𝑛 − � − − − −(10)
2 𝑑𝑑
Practically, D >> d and y ˂˂ D 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 3𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 5𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 = , , ,… − − − (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
∴ S2 P + S1 P ≅ 2D 2𝑑𝑑 2𝑑𝑑 2𝑑𝑑
Eq.(4) becomes, where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ….
2yd yd From Eq.(i) and Eq.(ii), show that the bright and
(S2 P − S1 P) = = − − − (5)
2D D dark fringes (or bands) occur alternately
Eq(1) now becomes,
 Expression for band width or fringe width:
yd
Path difference (∆𝑙𝑙) = S1 P − S2 P = − −(6)
D The distance between consecutive bright (or
 Condition for constructive interference at P: dark) fringes is called the fringe width (or band
If the path difference (∆l) between S1P and S2P width) W.
is an integral multiple of λ, the two waves
𝑊𝑊 = 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛
arriving there will interfere constructively,
 Fringe width for bright band:
producing a bright fringe at P.
For nth bright band,
Path difference (∆𝑙𝑙) = nλ − − − (7)
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …. 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 =
𝑑𝑑
From eq.(6) and (7), we get, For the next (n+1) bright band,
yd (𝑛𝑛 + 1)𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
= 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛+1 =
D 𝑑𝑑
For nth bright band, (𝑛𝑛 + 1)𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 ∴ 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 = −
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 = − − − (8)
𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 ∴ 𝑊𝑊 = (𝑛𝑛 + 1 − 𝑛𝑛) =
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 = 0, , , …. − − − (𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
∴ 𝑊𝑊 = − − − (𝑖𝑖)
where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …. 𝑑𝑑
 Condition for destructive interference at P:  Fringe width for dark band:
If the path difference between S1P and S2P is half For nth dark band,
half-integral multiple of λ, there will be 1 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 = �𝑛𝑛 − � = (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)
destructive interference, and a dark fringe will be 2 𝑑𝑑 2𝑑𝑑
For the next (n+1) dark band,
produced at P.
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛+1 = [2(𝑛𝑛 + 1) − 1] = (2𝑛𝑛)
2𝑑𝑑 2𝑑𝑑
14 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 where E0 is the amplitude of the two waves
∴ 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛+1 − 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛 = (2𝑛𝑛) − (2𝑛𝑛 − 1)
2𝑑𝑑 2𝑑𝑑 The Resultant Electric field of two waves at
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
∴ 𝑊𝑊 = (2𝑛𝑛 − 2𝑛𝑛 + 1) point P is,
𝑑𝑑
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸1 + 𝐸𝐸2
∴ 𝑊𝑊 = − − − (𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖)
𝑑𝑑 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝐸𝐸0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)
From Eq.(i) and (ii), show that the bright and 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 [𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙)]
dark fringes are equally spaced. Using 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 + 𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �
𝐴𝐴+𝐵𝐵
� 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 �
𝐴𝐴−𝐵𝐵
�
2 2
 Phase difference for bright & dark band:
𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 − 𝜙𝜙
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 �2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � ��
2𝜋𝜋 2 2
Δ𝜙𝜙 = � � ∆𝑙𝑙
𝜆𝜆 2𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙 −𝜙𝜙
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 �2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � ��
We have, 2 2
yd 𝜙𝜙 𝜙𝜙
Path difference (∆𝑙𝑙) = S1 P − S2 P = 𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 �2𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � � �
D 2 2
yd [since Cos(-θ)= cosθ]
Δ𝜙𝜙 = (2𝜋𝜋) − − − (1)
𝜆𝜆D 𝜙𝜙 𝜙𝜙
yd 𝐸𝐸 = 2𝐸𝐸0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � � 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + �
= 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 2 2
D 𝜙𝜙
Let 𝐴𝐴 = 2𝐸𝐸0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � 2 � be resultant amplitude of
yd
= 𝑛𝑛 − − − (2)
𝜆𝜆D both the waves.
From Eq.(1) and (2), 𝜙𝜙
𝐸𝐸 = 𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 �𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + �
Δ𝜙𝜙 = 𝑛𝑛(2𝜋𝜋) 2
where n = 0, ±1, ±2, ±3, …. The intensity, I, is proportional to the square of the

Similarly, for the dark band amplitude.

yd 1 ∴ 𝐼𝐼 ∝ 𝐴𝐴2
= �𝑛𝑛 − � 𝜆𝜆
D 2 𝜙𝜙 2
𝐼𝐼 = �2𝐸𝐸0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 � ��
yd 1 2
= �𝑛𝑛 − � − − − (3)
𝜆𝜆D 2 𝜙𝜙
𝐼𝐼 = 4𝐸𝐸02 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 � �
From Eq.(1) and (3), 2
1 𝜙𝜙
Δ𝜙𝜙 = �𝑛𝑛 − � (2𝜋𝜋) 𝐼𝐼 = 4𝐼𝐼0 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 � 2 � (∵ 𝐼𝐼0 = 𝐸𝐸02 )
2
Cases:
where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, ….
1) Let ϕ=0, cos 0 = 1
 Intensity Distribution:
∴ 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 4𝐼𝐼0
i) Consider two waves coming from S1 and S2 of
Here, the Resultant intensity of the two waves
the same amplitude that meet at point P but
is maximum,
with a phase difference ϕ.
2) Let ϕ=π/2, cos π/2 = 0
ii) The magnitude of the electric fields of two
∴ 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 0
waves at point P is
Here, the Resultant intensity of the two waves
𝐸𝐸1 = 𝐸𝐸0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 − − − (1)
is minimum
𝐸𝐸2 = 𝐸𝐸0 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠(𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔 + 𝜙𝜙) − − − (2)

15 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

3) If two waves are of different amplitudes, then small in comparison to the distance between the
the intensity centre of the bright band is plane containing the slits and the observing
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∝ |𝐸𝐸10 + 𝐸𝐸20 |2 screen.

Where E10 and E20 are the amplitudes of the The separation of successive bright or dark
first and second waves, respectively. fringes is inversely proportional to the
4) If two waves are of different amplitudes, then closeness of the slits and directly proportional
the intensity centre of the dark band is to the screen distance.

𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∝ |𝐸𝐸10 − 𝐸𝐸20 |2 5) The two slits should be narrow.

Intensity is minimum but not zero. Wide slits cause significant distance variation
from points along the slit to a screen point,
7.8.3. Conditions for obtaining well well-
resulting in wave interference and a blurred
defined and steady interference pattern:
pattern.
1) The two sources of light should be coherent. 6) The two waves should be in the same state of
To achieve a stable interference pattern, the polarisation.
waves from two coherent sources must remain The points where the waves meet in opposite
in phase or maintain a constant phase phase will not be completely dark, and the
difference. Varying phases will cause the interference pattern will not be distinct.
maxima and minima to shift pattern, leading to
7.8.4. Methods for Obtaining Coherent Sources:
instability. Thus, it's recommended that both
1) Lloyd’s mirror:
secondary sources in the experiment be derived
i) This device is commonly used.
from a single primary source.
ii) Light from a source (S1) strikes a plane mirror
2) The two sources of light must be
MM’ at a grazing angle.
monochromatic.
iii)Some light travels directly to the screen AB,
The positions and widths of bright and dark
while other light reflects off the mirror MM’.
fringes depend on the wavelength of light.
iv) The reflected light appears to come from a
Interference will result in complex-coloured
virtual source (S2), creating two coherent
bands (fringes) because the separation of
sources from one source.
successive bright bands (fringes) is different
v) They interfere, producing an interference
for different colours. It may also produce
pattern as shown.
overlapping bands
vi) The light is monochromatic, having a single
3) The two interfering waves must have the
wavelength.
same amplitude.
The intensity of dark fringes (destructive 2) Fresnel biprism:

interference) is zero only when the amplitudes i) A biprism is a prism with a vertex angle near

are equal, resulting in the highest contrast 180 degrees, resembling two prisms with small

between bright and dark fringes. refracting angles (between 30 and 1 degree)

4) The separation between the two slits must be joined at their bases.
16 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 The wave vector of the light wave is
2𝜋𝜋
𝑘𝑘 = − − − (2)
𝜆𝜆
v
v = 𝜐𝜐𝜐𝜐 ⇒ 𝜆𝜆 =
𝜈𝜈
where ν and λ are the frequency and
wavelength of the light wave, respectively.
2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋 𝜔𝜔
∴ 𝑘𝑘 = =
v v
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝜔𝜔 = 2𝜋𝜋𝜋𝜋
ii) In experiments, the biprism's refracting edge is
iii) If the wave travels a distance Δx in any
aligned with the slit.
medium of refractive index n, its phase changes
iii)Monochromatic light from a source passes
by Δϕ
through a narrow-slit S and hits the biprism,
𝜔𝜔Δ𝑥𝑥
creating virtual images S1 and S2. Δϕ′ = k ′ Δ𝑥𝑥 = − − − (3)
v
iv) These images serve as coherent sources from a 𝑐𝑐 𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛 = ⇒ v =
single secondary source S, and the waves from v 𝑛𝑛
S1 and S2 interfere, producing interference 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔Δ𝑥𝑥 𝜔𝜔Δ𝑥𝑥′
Δϕ′ = k ′ Δ𝑥𝑥 = =
c c
fringes.
where Δ𝑥𝑥 ′ = 𝑛𝑛Δ𝑥𝑥
iv) When a wave travels a distance Δx in a
medium with refractive index n, its phase shifts
as if it had moved n Δx in a vacuum.
v) Thus, Δx in a medium is equivalent to n Δx in a
vacuum, which is the optical path.
vi) The optical path in a medium indicates the
effective distance light would travel in a
vacuum to achieve the same phase difference.

7.8.5. Optical Path: vii) In a vacuum, the optical path equals the actual

i) Consider a light wave with an angular distance since n = 1.

frequency ω and wave vector k travelling in the viii) Optical path in a medium can also be defined

positive x-direction through a vacuum. as the corresponding path in vacuum that the
light travels at the same time as it takes in the

The magnitude of the electric field of this wave is, given medium.

𝐸𝐸 = 𝐸𝐸0 sin(𝑘𝑘𝑘𝑘 − 𝜔𝜔𝜔𝜔) − − − (1) The time travelled by the light wave is,

(kx-ωt) is a phase of this wave distance dmedium dvacuum

t= = =
speed vmedium vvacuum
ii) In a vacuum, c is the speed of light, whereas in
Optical path = dvacuum
any medium it is v.
17 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 vvacuum • The thickness of the plate is
dvacuum = × dmedium
vmedium
𝑁𝑁𝑁𝑁
dvacuum = 𝑛𝑛 × dmedium 𝑡𝑡 =
(𝑛𝑛 − 1)
Let dmedium be the distance travelled by the wave in a
𝑤𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒𝑒 𝑁𝑁 𝑖𝑖𝑖𝑖 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛. 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓
medium, then
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = ∆𝑑𝑑 = dvacuum − 𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
7.9. Diffraction of Light:
∆𝑑𝑑 = 𝑛𝑛 × dmedium − 𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (i) Shadows form when an opaque object blocks

∆𝑑𝑑 = dmedium (𝑛𝑛 − 1) light.

Thus, a distance d travelled in a medium of (ii) Geometrical optics is based on the principle
refractive index n introduces an optical path that light travels in straight lines, but
difference over a ray travelling an equal distance phenomena like interference require an
through vacuum. understanding of the wave nature of light.
Two waves interfere constructively when their (iii) Another phenomenon, diffraction, occurs
optical path lengths are equal or differ by when light seems to curve around obstacles,
integral multiples of the wavelength. reaching areas that would typically be
shadowed.
 If we introduce a transparent plate of thickness (iv) This bending, known as diffraction, is a
t and refractive index n in front of slit S1 characteristic of all waves.
(v) For instance, sound waves can also navigate
around barriers, allowing us to hear someone
speaking even with a wall in between.
(vi) However, during diffraction, light doesn't
actually bend; it reaches shadowed areas due to
light from secondary sources at the obstacle's
edge.
• Optical path difference (vii) Diffraction is related to interference but
∆𝑑𝑑 = 𝑡𝑡(𝑛𝑛 − 1) involves many waves rather than just two.
Hence, the optical path travelled by the wave (viii) It becomes noticeable when the obstacle or
along S1 is higher than that travelled by the slit size is similar to the light's wavelength.
wave along S1 in the absence of the plate by (ix) Since diffraction is a wave phenomenon, it
(n-1) t. also applies to sound, which has larger
• If this film is placed in the path of the upper wavelengths, making sound diffraction easier
wave, the pattern shifts upward, and if the to observe.
film is placed in the path of the lower wave, The phenomenon of bending of light around the
the pattern will shift downward. corners of an obstacle/aperture whose size is
• Fringe shift(Δx) is given by comparable to the size of the wavelength of light is
𝐷𝐷 called diffraction of light.
∆𝑥𝑥 = (𝑛𝑛 − 1)𝑡𝑡
𝑑𝑑
18 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 ii. Ignoring aberrations, the light emerges as plane
parallel rays, forming plane wavefronts.
iii. These rays incident on a diffracting element, such
as a slit or grating, before reaching another
converging lens that focuses them onto a screen.
iv. For a circular aperture, S is a point source with bi-
convex lenses, while for linear elements like slits,
7.9.1: Types of Diffraction of Light: S is linear with cylindrical lenses, producing a
1. Fraunhofer Diffraction: linear focused image.
i. Fraunhofer diffraction occurs when the v. In both cases, a plane wavefront approaches and
distances from the light source to the exits the diffracting element, consistent with
obstacle and the screen are large, allowing Fraunhofer diffraction principles.
the wavefront to be treated as a plane wave. 7.9.3. Fraunhofer diffraction due to a single
ii. This is achieved by placing the light source at slit:
the focus of a convex lens, which directs a
plane wavefront at the obstacle, and using
another convex lens to project the
diffraction pattern onto the screen.
2. Fresnel Diffraction:
i. The distances are shorter, and the incoming
wavefront can be cylindrical or spherical,
depending on the source. A lens is not needed to
view the diffraction pattern on the screen.

7.9.2. Experimental set-up for Fraunhofer

diffraction: i) Consider a single slit illuminated with a parallel

i. Figure shows a monochromatic light source S at beam of monochromatic light of wavelength λ

the focus of a converging lens. perpendicular to the plane of the slit. The
diffraction pattern is obtained on a screen at a
distance D (>> a) from the slit of width a and at
19 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 the focal plane of the convex lens of focal xii) This discussion can be expanded to include
length F(≈D). points on the screen with path differences of
2 λ, 3 λ, ... n λ between the extreme rays. These
1. Location of central maxima:
ii) According to Huygens’ principle, every point
points will appear dark, indicating dark fringes.

of the slit acts as a secondary source and Then the path difference is an even multiple of

spreads in all directions. λ/2

iii)Since the incoming plane wave fronts are xiii) Hence, at the location of nth minima, the path

parallel to the slit, all Huygens sources at the difference between the extreme rays

slit are in phase. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ±𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 − − − (1)

iv) Hence, at P0, it is also in phase on the screen, where ‘±’ indicates the same logic is applicable for

equidistant from all sources, so there is no points on the other side of P0. >

phase difference and forms a central 3. Location of maxima

maximum, i.e. constructive interference at P0. xiv) If we assume the maxima to be in between the

2. Location of first minima: respective minima, then the path difference is

v) Let point P be at angular position θ, where θ is an odd multiple of λ/2
very small. xv) Hence, at the location of nth maxima, the path
vi) The optical paths of the rays from A to C till difference between the extreme rays
1
point P are equal, as AC is normal to AM. 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = ± �𝑛𝑛 + 2� 𝜆𝜆 − − − (2)
vii) In ΔABC, let BC be the path difference, then
 Distances of minima and maxima from the
𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = = ⇒ 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 central bright point (i.e., the distances on
𝐴𝐴𝐴𝐴 𝑎𝑎
the screen):
viii) Let this path difference be λ, i.e. BC=λ
Let K be the midpoint of AC 1. Distances of minima from the central bright
1 𝜆𝜆 point
∴ 𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂 = 𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 =
2 2 The path difference at the locations of nth dark
ix) Thus, the path difference between the waves point is,
AP and OP is λ/2, which is the condition for 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
destructive interference at P. 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≅ 𝜃𝜃 = − − − (1)
x) Now consider any pair of points equidistant 𝑎𝑎
respectively from A and 0, such as G and H, As D>> a, hence the angle is very small
separated by distance a /2 along the slit. from the above figure,
xi) Rays (waves) from any such pair will have a 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≅ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≅ 𝜃𝜃 = − − − (2)
𝐷𝐷
path difference of λ /2 at P. Thus, all such pairs
where ynd is the distance of point P, on the screen,
of points between AO and OB will produce
from the central bright point,
destructive interference at P. This makes point
𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
P the first minimum. =
𝐷𝐷 𝑎𝑎

20 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 Intensity distribution in a single slit diffraction
∴ 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = 𝑛𝑛 = 2𝑊𝑊
𝑎𝑎
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
where, 𝑊𝑊 = 𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓𝑓 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤ℎ =
𝑎𝑎
It is the distance between consecutive bright
fringes or consecutive dark fringes, except the
central (zeroth) bright fringe.

2. Distances of maxima from the central bright

point
The path difference at the locations of nth bright
point is,
1
𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 = �𝑛𝑛 + 2� 𝜆𝜆
1 𝜆𝜆 7.10. Resolving Power:
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≅ 𝜃𝜃 = �𝑛𝑛 + � − − − (1)
2 𝑎𝑎 i) Diffraction significantly impacts the resolving
As D>> a, hence the angle is very small
power of optical instruments, which are used to
from the above figure, observe fine details and clear images of nearby
𝑦𝑦
𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 ≅ 𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡𝑡 ≅ 𝜃𝜃 = − − − (2) objects, beyond mere magnification.
𝐷𝐷
Let ynd be the distances of nth bright point from the The ability to distinguish two physically

central bright point. Then from eq.(1) and (2), separated objects as two distinct objects is

𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 1 𝜆𝜆 known as the resolving power of an optical

= �𝑛𝑛 + �
𝐷𝐷 2 𝑎𝑎 instrument.
1 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 ii) The resolving power of optical devices, such as
∴ 𝑦𝑦𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 = �𝑛𝑛 + � = 2𝑊𝑊
2 𝑎𝑎
eyes, microscopes, or telescopes, depends on
 Width of central bright fringe: the aperture size of the lens or mirror and the
The central bright fringe is spread between the wavelength of light.
first dark fringes on either side. Thus, the width iii)The smallest linear or angular separation
of the central bright fringe is the distance between two-point objects that appear just
between the centres of the first dark fringe on resolved when viewed through an optical
either side. instrument is called the limit of resolution of the
Width of the central bright fringe, instrument

𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 iv) The reciprocal of the limit of resolution is called

𝑊𝑊𝑐𝑐 = 2𝑊𝑊 = 2
𝑎𝑎 the resolving power.

21 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

7.10.1 Rayleigh’s Criterion for Limit of the figure below. In this case, the objects or
Resolution (or for Resolving Power): wavelengths are resolved well.
(i) Unresolved
If two-point sources have very small angular
separation, then central or principal maxima in
their diffraction patterns will mostly overlap,
and resultant intensity shows uniform variation.
In this case, the two objects or wavelengths
cannot be distinguished or unresolved.
a) Rayleigh’s Criterion for Two linear objects:
(i) Consider two self-luminous objects (slits)
separated by some distance. As per Rayleigh’s
criterion, the first minimum of the diffraction
pattern of one of the sources should coincide
with the central maximum of the other.

(ii) Just resolve:

Suppose the central or principal maxima in the
diffraction pattern of one object or wavelength
coincides with the first minima in the diffraction
pattern of the other objects or wavelength. In
that case, the resultant intensity shows a small
dip. In this case, the objects or wavelengths are
seen to be just separate or just resolved.
(ii) Minimum angular separation between two
objects, i.e. limit of resolution is
𝜆𝜆
𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙 𝑜𝑜𝑜𝑜 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − − − (1)
𝑎𝑎
where a is the width of the slit, and λ is the
wavelength of the source
(iii) Minimum separation between the two linear
objects that are just resolved, at distance D from
(iii) Resolved
the instrument,
If two-point sources have very large angular
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
separation, then the central or principal maxima 𝑦𝑦 = 𝐷𝐷(𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) =
𝑎𝑎
are widely separated, and the resultant intensity This is the distance of the first minimum from
shows two widely separated peaks. As shown in the centre.
22 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
b) Pair of Point objects:
(i) The objects viewed through a microscope are
often point objects.
(ii) The diffraction pattern of point objects consists
of a central bright disc surrounded by concentric
rings, called the Airy disc and rings.
(iii) According to the Rayleigh criterion, the first
dark ring due to O’ should coincide with I,
and that of O should coincide with I’.
(iv) The nature of illumination at a point on the
screen is determined by the effective path
difference at that point.
(v) Let us consider point I to be symmetric for O.
(vi) Paths of the extreme rays reaching I from O’
(iii) Abbe was the first to examine this in detail
are O’AI and O’BI.
and use it for Fraunhofer diffraction.
(vii) The paths AI and BI are equal.
(iv) A real Airy disk formed by passing a red
(viii) Thus, the actual path difference is (O’B –
laser beam through a 90 µm pinhole aperture
that shows several orders (rings) of O’A)
diffraction.

(v) According to Lord Rayleigh, to distinguish

point objects, the first dark ring of one object's
diffraction pattern must align with the centre of
the other object's pattern, and vice versa. (ix) The region around 0' and O is highly enlarged
as shown in the above figure, which proves
7.10.2. Resolving Power of a Microscope:
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷′ + 𝑂𝑂′𝐶𝐶 = 2 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
(i) Consider two point objects O and O’, separated by
a) Microscope with a pair of non-luminous
a distance a in front of a microscope's objective
objects (dark objects):
AB.
1. In actual practice, the objects O and O’ viewed
(ii) The medium between them has a refractive index
through a microscope are illuminated by an
n, and the wavelength of light emitted is λ. The
external source.
angular separation at the objective is 2α.

23 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

2. Often, the eyepiece of the microscope is filled 3. For better resolution, ‘a’ should be a minimum.
with some transparent material of refractive This can be achieved by using an oil-filled
index n. objective, which provides a higher value of n.
3. Then the wavelength of light in this material is 7.10.3. Resolving Power of Telescope:
𝜆𝜆
𝜆𝜆𝑛𝑛 = (i) Consider objective AB of a telescope receiving
𝑛𝑛
two sets of parallel beams from two distant
where λ is the wavelength of light in air.
objects with an angular separation θ.
4. Let λn be the path difference at the first dark
ring.

𝜆𝜆
𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜆𝜆𝑛𝑛 = − − − (2)
𝑛𝑛

From Eq. (1) and (2),

𝜆𝜆
2 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 =
𝑛𝑛
5. Then, the limit of resolution is (ii) Resolving power of a telescope is then defined
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 as the reciprocal of the least angular separation
𝑎𝑎 = =
2𝑛𝑛𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 2(𝑁𝑁. 𝐴𝐴. ) between the objects that are just resolved.
The factor nsinα is called numerical Aperture
(iii) According to Rayleigh's criterion, the
(N.A.).
6. The resolving power is given by, minimum separation between the images I and
I' must be equal to the radius of the first dark
𝟏𝟏 𝟐𝟐(𝑵𝑵. 𝑨𝑨. )
𝑹𝑹. 𝑷𝑷. = = Airy ring.
𝒂𝒂 𝝀𝝀
(iv) According to Abbe's theory of Airy discs in
b) Microscope with self-luminous point objects:
Fraunhofer diffraction, the path difference for
1. According to Abbe's theory of Airy discs in
extreme rays at the first dark ring from two-
Fraunhofer diffraction, the path difference for
point sources is 1.22 λ.
extreme rays at the first dark ring from two-
point sources is 1.22 λ. 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐵𝐵𝐼𝐼 ′ − 𝐴𝐴𝐼𝐼 ′ = 1.22𝜆𝜆 − −(1)

2. Thus, for the requirement of the limit of (v) If D is the diameter of the objective AB, then,
resolution, 𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃𝑃ℎ 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝐵𝐵𝐼𝐼 ′ − 𝐴𝐴𝐼𝐼 ′ = 𝐷𝐷 × 𝜃𝜃 − −(2)
1.22𝜆𝜆
2 𝑎𝑎 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 = where θ is the limit of resolution
𝑛𝑛
1.22 𝜆𝜆 0.61𝜆𝜆 0.61𝜆𝜆 (vi) From Eq.(1) and (2), we get,
𝑎𝑎 = = =
2𝑛𝑛 𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 𝑁𝑁. 𝐴𝐴.
𝐷𝐷 × 𝜃𝜃 = 1.22𝜆𝜆
1.22𝜆𝜆
7. The resolving power is given by, 𝜃𝜃 =
𝐷𝐷
𝟏𝟏 (𝑵𝑵. 𝑨𝑨. ) (vii) Thus, the resolving power of the telescope is
𝑹𝑹. 𝑷𝑷. = =
𝒂𝒂 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 given by,

24 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

 𝟏𝟏 𝑫𝑫 Exercise:
𝑹𝑹. 𝑷𝑷. = =
𝜽𝜽 𝟏𝟏. 𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐𝟐 1. Choose the correct option
(viii) Thus, to increase the resolving power of a
i) Which of the following phenomena proves that
telescope (for a given wavelength), its objective
light is a transverse wave?
(aperture) should be as large as possible.
(A) Reflection (B) Interference
(C)Diffraction (D) Polarisation
 Radio Telescope:
Answer:
1. Radio telescopes gather and focus radio waves
Polarisation is a phenomenon where the vibrations
in the same way that optical telescopes gather
of a wave are restricted to a particular direction
and focus visible light.
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
This is only possible if the wave is transverse,
meaning its oscillations are perpendicular to its
motion.
• Transverse waves (like light) can be
polarised.
• Longitudinal waves (like sound) cannot be
polarised because their oscillations are
along the direction of propagation.
Thus, the correct option is (D) Polarisation

2. Wavelengths of radio waves are in metres. ii) Which property of light does not change when

3. Radio telescopes require large diameters, it travels from one medium to another?

ideally several kilometres, to match the (A) velocity (B) wavelength

resolution of optical telescopes. (C) amplitude (D) frequency

4. Since a single dish of this size is impractical, Answer:

arrays of antennas spread over several When light passes from one medium to another

kilometres are used. (say, from air to water), several properties can

5. The Giant Metre-wave Radio Telescope change due to the interaction with the new

(GMRT) is in Narayangaon near Pune, medium. However, frequency remains constant

Maharashtra. It consists of 30 dishes, each 45 because it is determined by the source of the light,

meters in diameter, spread over 25 kilometres, not the medium.

the largest distance between any two antennas. Thus, the correct option is (D) frequency

6. The best angular resolution ranges from about iii) When unpolarized light is passed through a
60 arcsec at 50 MHz to around 2 arcsec at 1.4 polariser, its intensity
GHz. (A)increases
(B) decreases
(C) remains unchanged
25 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
(D) depends on the orientation of the polariser ∴ 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 = 5 𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 = 1
Answer: 𝑎𝑎1 = 1 + 𝑎𝑎2
Unpolarized light consists of waves vibrating in all ∴ (1 + 𝑎𝑎2 ) + 𝑎𝑎2 = 5
directions perpendicular to the direction of 1 + 2𝑎𝑎2 = 5
propagation. A polariser filters out all vibrations 2𝑎𝑎2 = 5 − 1 = 4 ⇒ 2𝑎𝑎2 = 4 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎2 = 2
except those in one specific direction, allowing ∴ 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎1 − 2 = 1 ⇒ 𝑎𝑎1 = 3
only a single plane of vibration to pass through. Now,
• Only half of the original light intensity (on 𝐼𝐼1 𝑎𝑎12 32 9
= = =
average) gets through. 𝐼𝐼2 𝑎𝑎22 22 4
• This is because the polariser blocks all Thus, the correct option is (D) 9:4
components of the electric field not aligned v) In Young’s double slit experiment, a thin
with its transmission axis. uniform sheet of glass is kept in front of the two
1
• 𝐼𝐼 ∝ 2 |𝐸𝐸0 |2 − − − (3) slits, parallel to the screen having the slits. The
• This shows that the intensity of an resulting interference pattern will satisfy
unpolarized wave is reduced by half after (A)The interference pattern will remain unchanged
passing through a polariser. (B)The fringe width will decrease
Thus, the correct option is (B) decreases. (C)The fringe width will increase
(D)The fringes will shift.
iv) In Young’s double slit experiment, the two
Answer:
coherent sources have different intensities. If
When a uniform glass sheet is placed in front of
the ratio of maximum intensity to the minimum
both slits equally, it introduces the same optical
intensity in the interference pattern produced is
path length for light from both slits.
25:1. what was the ratio of intensities of the two
This means:
sources?
• No relative phase difference is introduced.
(A) 5:1 (B) 25:1 (C) 3:2 (D) 9:4
• The central maximum stays in the same position.
Answer:
• The fringe width remains unchanged because it
Given:
depends on the geometry:
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 25
= 𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 𝑦𝑦 =
𝑑𝑑
We have,
where: λ = wavelength of light, D = distance to
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 )2
= screen, d = slit separation
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 )2
where a1 and a2 are amplitudes • A glass sheet in front of one slit → fringe shift

25 (𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 )2 • A glass sheet in front of both slits equally → no

=
1 (𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 )2 change
5 𝑎𝑎1 + 𝑎𝑎2 Thus, in this case correct option is (A) The
=
1 𝑎𝑎1 − 𝑎𝑎2 interference pattern will remain unchanged

26 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

2. Answer in brief • Since colour relates to λ and interference
i) What are primary and secondary sources of depends on the ratio of λ to the object's size,
light? different film thicknesses produce various
Answer: Refer to the theory part colours.
ii) What is a wavefront? How is it related to rays
of light? What is the shape of the wavefront at
a point far away from the source of light?
Answer:
“The locus of all the points of the medium to which
light waves will reach simultaneously, so that all
the points are in the same phase, is called a
wavefront.”
Rays of light indicate the direction of propagation
of the light wave. The direction of propagation of
the wave is perpendicular to the wavefronts, i.e.,
• Ray AE shows that the incident wave partially
the rays of light are always perpendicular to the
reflects off the upper surface, while the
wavefront.
remaining light bends along AD, continues to
The shape of the wavefront at a point far away
DC, and partially reflects at D.
from the source of light is a Plane.
• It then refracts into the air at C and travels along
iii) Why are multiple colours observed over a thin CF. Due to varying path lengths in different
film of oil floating on water? Explain with the media, the parallel rays AE and CF exhibit a
help of a diagram. phase difference influenced by the angle of

Answer: incidence and the wavelength of light, as

depicted in the figure.
• The bright colours seen in oil slicks or soap
• The interference of the two waves along AE and
bubbles under sunlight are caused by
CF results in peaks and troughs for different
interference, particularly constructive
colours at various viewing angles.
interference from light reflecting off different
iv) In Young's double slit experiment, what will we
surfaces of a thin film.
observe on the screen when white light is
• This phenomenon, known as thin film
incident on the slits, but one slit is covered with
interference, is most prominent when light
a red filter and the other with a violet filter?
interacts with objects similar in size to its
Give reasons for your answer.
wavelength.
Answer:
• A thin film has a thickness t that is a few times
In Young's Double Slit Experiment, when white
less than the wavelength of light, λ.
light hits the slits and one slit is covered with a red
filter while the other has a violet filter, the
27 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
interference pattern on the screen will change 3. Different Fringe Widths
significantly. • Fringe width is given by,
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
 Observation on the Screen: 𝑦𝑦 =
𝑑𝑑
• No regular interference fringes will be
where: λ = wavelength of light, D =
formed.
distance to screen, d = slit separation
• Instead, you'll see two overlapping single-slit
• Since λred > λviolet, the red pattern will have
diffraction patterns:
wider fringes than the violet one.
 One red pattern from the slit with the red
• But again, these are not interference
filter.
fringes, just diffraction envelopes
 One violet pattern from the slit with the
violet filter. v) Explain what optical path length is. How is it

• These patterns will be centred at different different from actual path length?

positions due to their differing wavelengths. Answer:

• The central maxima of each colour will be The optical path length is the effective distance

displaced, and no constructive or destructive light travels in a medium, considering the

interference will occur between them. refractive index (n) of that medium.
The actual path length is the distance travelled by
 Reasoning Behind the Observation:
light in a medium.
1. Loss of Coherence Between Slits
optical path length = n x (actual path length)
• Interference requires coherent light
3. Derive the laws of reflection of light using
sources—same wavelength and constant
Huygens’ principle.
phase difference.
Answer: Refer to the theory part
• Red and violet light have different
wavelengths (red ≈ 700 nm, violet ≈ 400 4. Derive the laws of refraction of light using
nm). Huygens’ principle.
• Since each slit now emits monochromatic Answer: Refer to the theory part
light of different wavelengths, the waves 5. Explain what is meant by polarisation and
are not coherent with each other. derive Malus’ law.
• Therefore, no stable interference pattern Answer: Refer to the theory part
can form between them.
6. What is Brewster’s law? Derive the formula
2. Independent Diffraction Patterns
for the Brewster angle.
• Each slit acts as a source of
Answer: Refer to the theory part
monochromatic light:
o Red slit → red diffraction pattern. 7. Describe Young’s double slit interference

o Violet slit → violet diffraction pattern. experiment and derive conditions for the

• These patterns do not interfere with each occurrence of dark and bright fringes on the

other but superpose on the screen.

28 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 screen. Define fringe width and derive a 𝜆𝜆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 700 × 10−9
∴ 𝜆𝜆2 = = = 451.61 × 10−9 𝑚𝑚
formula for it. 𝑛𝑛 1.55
⸫ λ1 = 258.09 nm and λ2 = 451.61 nm
Answer: Refer to the theory part
14. The optical path of a ray of light of a given
8. What are the conditions for obtaining a good
wavelength travelling 3 cm in flint glass having
interference pattern? Give reasons.
a refractive index of 1.6 is the same as that of
Answer: Refer to the theory part
travelling a distance x cm through a medium
9. What is meant by coherent sources? What are
having a refractive index of 1.25. Determine the
the two methods for obtaining coherent sources
value of x.
in the laboratory?
Answer:
Answer: Refer to the theory part
Given: (1) df = 3 cm (2) nf = 1.6
10. What is the diffraction of light? How does it (3) dm = x cm (4) nm = 1.25
differ from interference? What are Fraunhofer Optical path length(OPL) is,
and Fresnel diffractions? (𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂)𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓 × d𝑓𝑓
Answer: Refer to the theory part (𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂)𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 = 𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 × d𝑚𝑚
11. Derive the conditions for bright and dark Since the optical path length is the same for flint
fringes produced due to diffraction by a single glass and medium,
slit. (𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂)𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹𝐹 = (𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂𝑂)𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
Answer: Refer to the theory part 𝑛𝑛𝑔𝑔 × d𝑓𝑓 = 𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 × d𝑚𝑚
12. Describe what is Rayleigh’s criterion for 𝑛𝑛𝑓𝑓 × d𝑓𝑓 1.6 × 3 4.8
𝑑𝑑𝑚𝑚 = 𝑥𝑥 = = = = 3.84𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐
𝑛𝑛𝑚𝑚 1.25 1.25
resolution. Explain it for a telescope and a
The value of x is 3.84 cm
microscope.
Answer: Refer to the theory part 15. A double-slit arrangement produces
interference fringes for sodium light (λ=589
13. White light consists of wavelengths from 400
nm) that are 0.20° apart. What is the angular
nm to 700 nm. What will be the wavelength
range seen when white light is passed through a fringe separation if the entire arrangement is
immersed in water (n = 1.33)?
glass of refractive index 1.55?
Answer:
Answer:
Given:(1) λair = 589 nm (2) θair = 0.200
Given: (1) λmin = 400 nm = 400 x 10 – 9 m
(3) nwater = 1.33
(2) λmax = 700 nm = 700 x 10 – 9 m
The refractive index of water,
(3) ng = 1.55
𝜆𝜆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎
The refractive index is given by, 𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 =
𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤
𝜆𝜆𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣𝑣
𝑛𝑛 = 𝜆𝜆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 589𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝜆𝜆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = = = 442.86 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑛𝑛𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 1.33
𝜆𝜆𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 400 × 10−9
∴ 𝜆𝜆1 = = = 258.09 × 10−9 𝑚𝑚 Angular fringe separation in water,
𝑛𝑛 1.55

29 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

 𝜆𝜆𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 442.86 The second polaroid is horizontal, which means
𝜃𝜃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = 𝜃𝜃𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 × = 0.20 ×
𝜆𝜆𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎 589 its axis is at 90° to the vertical.
88.572 The angle between the transmission axes of the two
𝜃𝜃𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 = = 0.150
589
polaroids is given by
Angular separation fringe in water is 0.150.
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝜃𝜃2 − 𝜃𝜃1 = 90 − 50 = 400
16. In a double-slit arrangement, the slits are
Now, by Malus’s law,
separated by a distance equal to 100 times the 𝐼𝐼0
𝐼𝐼2 = 𝐼𝐼1 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 (𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑) = � � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 40
wavelength of the light passing through the slits. 2
(a) What is the angular separation in radians The intensity of the light after it has passed through
between the central maximum and an adjacent 𝐼𝐼
the second polaroid is � 20 � 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 2 40
maximum?
18. In a biprism experiment, the fringes are
(b) What is the distance between these maxima
observed in the focal plane of the eyepiece at 1.2
on a screen 50.0 cm from the slits?
m from the slits. The distance between the
Answer:
central bright band and the 20th bright band is
Given: (1) d = 100 λ
0.4 cm. When a convex lens is placed between
(2) D = 50 cm = 0.50 m the biprism and the eyepiece, 90 cm from the
(a) The angular separation between the central eyepiece, the distance between the two virtual
maximum and an adjacent maximum is magnified images is found to be 0.9 cm.
𝜆𝜆 𝜆𝜆 1
𝜃𝜃 = = = = 0.01 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 Determine the wavelength of light used.
𝑑𝑑 100𝜆𝜆 100
Answer:
(b) The distance between the central maximum and
Given:
an adjacent maximum is
(1) Distance between slits and eyepiece, D = 1.2 m
𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
𝑦𝑦 = = 𝜃𝜃𝜃𝜃 = 0.01 × 50 = 0.5 𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 = 5𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (2) Distance between the central bright fringe and
𝑑𝑑
the 20th bright fringe, y20 = 0.4 cm = 0.004 m
17. Unpolarized light with intensity I0 is incident
(3) Number of fringes, n = 20
on two polaroids. The axis of the first polaroid
(4) Distance of lens from eyepiece,
makes an angle of 50° with the vertical, and the
v = 90 cm = 0.90 m
axis of the second polaroid is horizontal. What
(5) size of image, d1 = 0.9 cm = 0.009 m
is the intensity of the light after it has passed
(6) Distance of object from lens,
through the second polaroid?
u = D – v = 1.2 – 0.90 = 0.3 m
Answer:
By linear magnification,
When unpolarized light of intensity I0 passes
𝑑𝑑1 𝑣𝑣 𝑑𝑑1 𝑢𝑢 0.009 × 0.3
through a polaroid, its intensity is reduced by half: = ⇒ 𝑑𝑑 = =
𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢 𝑣𝑣 0.9
𝐼𝐼0
𝐼𝐼1 = − − − (1) 0.0027
2 𝑑𝑑 = = 0.003 𝑚𝑚
0.9
This light is now polarised along the axis of the
The 20th bright fringe width is
first polaroid, which is at 50° to the vertical.

30 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

 𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 Answer:
𝑦𝑦20 =
𝑑𝑑 Given:
𝑦𝑦20 𝑑𝑑 0.004 × 0.003
𝜆𝜆 = = Intensity of the first slit is I1, and Intensity of the
𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛 20 × 1.2
second slit is I2.
0.000012 12 × 10−6
𝜆𝜆 = = ⸫I1 = 2 I2
24 24
1 We have,
𝜆𝜆 = × 10−6 = 0.5 × 10−6
2 2
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ��𝐼𝐼1 + �𝐼𝐼2 �
𝜆𝜆 = 5000 × 10−10 𝑚𝑚 = 5000 Å =
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ��𝐼𝐼 − �𝐼𝐼 �2
1 2
The wavelength of light used is 5000 Å.
2
19. In Fraunhoffer diffraction by a narrow slit, a 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ��2𝐼𝐼2 + �𝐼𝐼2 �
=
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ��2𝐼𝐼 − �𝐼𝐼 �2
screen is placed at 2 m from the lens to obtain 2 2
2
the diffraction pattern. If the slit width is 0.2 mm 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼2 �√2 + √1�
=
and the first minimum is 5 mm on either side of 𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐼𝐼 �√2 − √1�2
2
the central maximum, find the wavelength of 2
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �√2 + √1�
light. =
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 �√2 − √1�2
Answer:
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (1.414 + 1)2 (2.414)2
Given:(1) D = 2m = =
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 (1.414 − 1)2 (0.414)2
(2) a = 0.2 mm = 2 x 10 -4 m
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 5.827
(3) y1d = 5 mm = 5 x 10 -3
m = = 33.80 ≅ 34
𝐼𝐼𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 0.1714
The width of the central maxima The ratio of the intensities of the bright and dark
-3 -2
W= 2y1d = 2 x 5 = 10 x 10 m = 10 m fringes is 34:1.
We have, 21. A parallel beam of green light of wavelength
2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 546 nm passes through a slit of width 0.4 mm.
𝑊𝑊 =
𝑎𝑎 The intensity pattern of the transmitted light is
𝑊𝑊𝑊𝑊 10−2 × 2 × 10−4
𝜆𝜆 = = seen on a screen which is 40 cm away. What is
2𝐷𝐷 2×2
the distance between the two first-order
2 × 10−6 1
𝜆𝜆 = = × 10−6 minima?
4 2
𝜆𝜆 = 0.5 × 10−6 = 5000 × 10−10 𝑚𝑚 Answer:
𝜆𝜆 = 5000 Å Given:(1) λ = 546 nm = 546 x 10-9 m
The wavelength of light used is 5000 Å. (2) a = 0.4 mm = 4 x 10 -4 m
(3) D = 40 cm = 40 x 10 -2 m
20. The intensity of the light coming from one of
The width of the central maxima (distance between
the slits in Young’s experiment is twice the
the two first-order minima is given by,
intensity of the light coming from the other slit.
2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆
What will be the approximate ratio of the 𝑊𝑊 =
𝑎𝑎
intensities of the bright and dark fringes in the
2 × 546 × 10−9 × 40 × 10−2
resulting interference pattern? 𝑊𝑊 =
4 × 10−4
31 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
 43680 × 10−11 𝑎𝑎 = 0.416 × 10−9 𝑚𝑚 = 0.416𝑛𝑛𝑛𝑛
𝑊𝑊 =
4 × 10−4 (b) For λ = 50 μm = 50 x 10 -6 m
𝑊𝑊 = 10920 × 10−7 = 1.09 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚
2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 2 × 50 × 10−6 × 2.50
𝑊𝑊 ≈ 1.1 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝑎𝑎 = =
𝑊𝑊 6 × 10−3
22. What must the ratio of the slit width to the 250 × 10−6
𝑎𝑎 = = 41.67 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚
6 × 10−3
wavelength be for a single slit to have the first
𝑎𝑎 = 41.67 𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚
diffraction minimum at 45.0°?
(c) For λ = 0.50 nm = 0.50 x 10 -9 m
Answer:
2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 2 × 0.50 × 10−9 × 2.50
Given: 𝑎𝑎 = =
𝑊𝑊 6 × 10−3
𝜋𝜋
(1)𝜃𝜃 = 45.00 = 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟 2.50 × 10−9
4 𝑎𝑎 = = 0.416 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚
6 × 10−3
The angular separation between for first diffraction
𝑎𝑎 = 4.16 × 10−4 𝑚𝑚
minimum is,
𝜆𝜆 24. A star is emitting light at the wavelength of
𝜃𝜃 =
𝑎𝑎 5000 Å. Determine the limit of resolution of a
The ratio of the slit width to wavelength is telescope having an objective of a diameter of
𝑎𝑎 1 4 4 200 inches.
= = = = 1.27
𝜆𝜆 𝜃𝜃 𝜋𝜋 3.142
Answer:
The ratio of the slit width to wavelength is 1.27
Given: (1) λ = 5000 Å = 5 x 10 -7 m
23. Monochromatic electromagnetic radiation (2) D = 200 inches = 200 x 2.54 = 508 cm
from a distant source passes through a slit. The
D = 508 x 10 -2 m
diffraction pattern is observed on a screen 2.50
The limit of resolution of the telescope is
m from the slit. If the width of the central
1.22𝜆𝜆 1.22 × 5 × 10−7
maximum is 6.00 mm, what is the slit width if 𝜃𝜃 = =
𝐷𝐷 508 × 10−2
the wavelength is (a) 500 nm (visible light), (b) 6.1 × 10−7
𝜃𝜃 = = 0.012 × 10−5
50 μm (infrared radiation), (c)0.500 nm (X- 508 × 10−2
rays)? 𝜃𝜃 = 1.2 × 10−7 𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟𝑟
Answer: 25. The distance between two consecutive bright
Given: (1) D = 2.50 m fringes in a biprism experiment using light of
-3
(2) W = 6.00 mm = 6 x 10 m wavelength 6000 Å is 0.32 mm. By how much
The width of the central maxima is will the distance change if light of wavelength
2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 4800 Å is used?
𝑊𝑊 = ⇒ 𝑎𝑎 =
𝑎𝑎 𝑊𝑊
Answer:
(a) For λ = 500 nm = 500 x 10 -9 m
Given:(1) λ1 = 6000 Å = 6 x 10 -7 m
2𝜆𝜆𝜆𝜆 2 × 500 × 10−9 × 2.50
𝑎𝑎 = = (2) y1 = 0.32 mm = 0.32 x 10 -3 m
𝑊𝑊 6 × 10−3
2500 × 10−9 (3) λ2 = 4800 Å = 4.8 x 10 -7 m
𝑎𝑎 = = 416.67 × 10−6 𝑚𝑚
6 × 10−3
32 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
Here, only wavelength changes, D & d remain the Example 7.3: A Plane wavefront of light of
same. wavelength 5500 Å is incident on two slits in a
The distance between two consecutive bright screen perpendicular to the direction of light rays.
fringes is given by, If the total separation of 10 bright fringes on a
𝜆𝜆1 𝐷𝐷 screen 2 m away is 2 cm, find the distance between
𝑦𝑦1 = − − − (1)
𝑑𝑑 the slits.
Similarly,
𝜆𝜆2 𝐷𝐷 Example 7.4: In a Young's double slit experiment,
𝑦𝑦2 = − − − (2)
𝑑𝑑 the difference in optical path lengths between the
From Eq.(1) and (2), rays starting from the two slits S1 and S2 and
𝑦𝑦2 𝜆𝜆2 𝐷𝐷 𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆2 reaching point A on the screen is 0.0075 mm and
= × =
𝑦𝑦1 𝑑𝑑 𝜆𝜆1 𝐷𝐷 𝜆𝜆1 reaching another point B on the screen on the other
𝜆𝜆2
𝑦𝑦2 = � � × 𝑦𝑦1 side of the central fringe is 0.0015 mm. How many
𝜆𝜆1
bright and dark fringes are observed between A and
4.8 x 10−7
𝑦𝑦2 = � � × 0.32 × 10−3 B if the wavelength of light used is 6000 Å?
6 × 10−7
𝑦𝑦2 = 0.8 × 0.32 × 10−3 = 0.256 × 10−3 Example 7.5: An isosceles prism of refracting
angle 1790 and refractive index 1.5 is used as a
The change in distance is
biprism by keeping it 10 cm away from a slit, the
∆𝑦𝑦 = 𝑦𝑦1 − 𝑦𝑦2 = (0.32 − 0.256) × 10−3
edge of the biprism being parallel to the slit. The
∆𝑦𝑦 = 0.064 × 10−3 𝑚𝑚 = 0.064𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 slit is illuminated by a light of wavelength 500 nm,
and the screen is 90 cm away from the biprism.
The change in distance when the wavelength is
Calculate the location of the centre of 20th dark
changed is 0.064mm
band and the path difference at this location.
Textbook Solved Numerical:
Example 7.6: What must be the thickness of a thin
Example 7.1: Unpolarized light of intensity I is
film which, when kept near one of the slits, shifts
made to pass through three polarisers P1, P2 and P3,
the central fringe by 5 mm for incident light of
successively. The Polarisation axis of P2 makes an
wavelength 5400 Å in Young’s double slit
angle of 1 with that of P1, while that of P3 makes
interference experiment? The refractive index of
an angle of 2 with that of P2. What will be the
the material of the film is 1.1, and the distance
intensity of light coming out of P3?
between the slits is 0.5 mm.
Example 7.2: For what angle of incidence will
Example 7.7: A telescope has an objective of
light incident on a bucket filled with liquid having
diameter 2.5 m. What is its angular resolution
a refractive index of 1.5 be completely polarised
when it observes at 5500 Å?
after reflection?

33 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave

34 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave
Difference between interference and diffraction:

Sr.
Interference of light Diffraction of light
No.

Bending of waves around obstacles or

1 Superposition of two waves
edges

Superposition of wavefronts emitted

Superposition of waves from two
2 from various points of the same
coherent sources
wavefront

3 Equally spaced fringes Unequally spaced fringes

The intensity of all the bright fringes is

4 Intensity falls rapidly for higher orders
almost the same

5 A large number of fringes are obtained Less number of fringes is obtained

35 | Page Compiled by Dr. M. M. Bhave