DNS

DNS stands for a Domain Name System.

DNS is a hostname for IP address translation service. DNS is a distributed database

implemented in a hierarchy of name servers. It is an application layer protocol for message
exchange between clients and servers.
Requirement: Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very
difficult for the people also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to
change the domain name to the IP address. So DNS is used to convert the domain name of
the websites to their numerical IP address.

Domain: There are various kinds of DOMAIN:

1. Generic domain: It is used to define the registered hosts with three characters
For ex: .com (commercial) .edu (educational) .mil(military) .org(non profit organization)
.net(similar to commercial) all these are generic domain

[Link] domain : The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses
two-character country abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three character
organizational abbreviations.
.in (india) .us .uk
[Link] domain if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip to domain
name mapping.
In the world of networking, computers do not represent by names like humans do, they
represent by numbers because that is how computers and other similar devices talk and
identify with each other over a network, which is by using numbers such as IP addresses.
Humans on the other hand are accustomed to using names instead of numbers, whether is
talking directly to another person or identifying a country, place, or things, humans identify
with names instead of numbers. So in order to bridge the communication gap between
computers and humans and make the communication of a lot easier networking engineers
developed DNS.
DNS resolves names to numbers, to be more specific it resolves domain names to IP
addresses. So if you type in a web address in your web browser, DNS will resolve the name
to a number because the only thing computers know are numbers.
Working:

If you wanted to go to a certain website you would open up your web browser and type in
domain name of that website. Let us use [Link]. Now technically you really do not
have to type in [Link] to retrieve Google web page, you can just type in IP address
instead if you already know what google’s IP address is, but since we are not accustomed to
memorizing and dealing with numbers, especially when there are millions of websites on
Internet, we can just type in domain name instead and let DNS convert it to an IP address
for us.
So back to our example, when you type [Link] on your web browser DNS server will
search through its cache to find a matching IP address for that domain name, and when it
finds it it will resolve that domain name to IP address of Google web site, and once that is
done then your computer is able to communicate with a Google web server and retrieve the
webpage.
So DNS basically works like a phone book, when you want to find a number, you do not
look up number first, you look up name first then it will give you the number. So to break
this down into further detail, let us examine the steps that DNS takes. So when you type in
[Link] in your web browser and if your web browser or operating system cannot find
IP address in its own cache memory, it will send a query to next level to what is called
resolver server. Resolver server is basically your ISP or Internet service provider, so when
resolver receives this query, it will check its own cache memory to find an IP address for
[Link], and if it cannot find it it will send query to next level which is root server. The
root servers are the top most server in the DNS hierarchy.

Generic Domains

o It defines the registered hosts according to their generic behavior.

o Each node in a tree defines the domain name, which is an index to the DNS database.
o It uses three-character labels, and these labels describe the organization type.

Label Description
aero Airlines and aerospace companies

biz Businesses or firms

com Commercial Organizations

coop Cooperative business Organizations

edu Educational institutions

gov Government institutions

info Information service providers

int International Organizations

mil Military groups

museum Museum & other nonprofit organizations

name Personal names

net Network Support centers

org Nonprofit Organizations

pro Professional individual Organizations

Country Domain

The format of country domain is same as a generic domain, but it uses two-character country
abbreviations (e.g., us for the United States) in place of three character organizational
abbreviations.

Inverse Domain

The inverse domain is used for mapping an address to a name. When the server has received
a request from the client, and the server contains the files of only authorized clients. To
determine whether the client is on the authorized list or not, it sends a query to the DNS
server and ask for mapping an address to the name.

DDNS
Dynamic Domain Name System (DDNS)

It is a method of automatically updating a name server in the Domain Name Server (DNS),
often in real-time, with the active DDNS configuration of its configured hostnames,
addresses, or other information. In DDNS, when a binding between a name and an address
is determined, the information is sent, usually by DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol) to a primary DNS server. The primary server updates the zone. The secondary
servers are notified either actively or passively. Inactive notification, the primary server
sends a message to secondary servers, whereas, in the passive notification, the secondary
servers periodically check for any changes. In either case, after being notified about the
change, the secondary requests information about the entire zone (zone transfer). DDNS
can use an authentication mechanism to provide security and prevent unauthorized changes
in DNS records.

Advantages :
1. It saves time required by static addresses updates manually when network configuration
changes.
2. It saves space as the number of addresses are used as required at one time rather than
using one for all the possible users of the IP address.
3. It is very comfortable for users point of view as any IP address changes will not affect
any of their activities.
4. It does not affect accessibility as changed IP addresses are configured automatically
against URL’s.
Disadvantages :
1. It is less reliable due to lack of static IP addresses and domain name mappings.
2. Dynamic DNS services alone can not make any guarantee about the device you are
attempting to connect is actually your own.

Uses :
1. It is used for Internet access devices such as routers.
2. It is used for security appliance manufacturers and even required for IP-based security
appliances like DVRs.
 TELNET
TELNET stands for Teletype Network.
It is a type of protocol that enables one computer to connect to local computer. It is a used
as a standard TCP/IP protocol for virtual terminal service which is given by ISO.
Computer which starts connection known as the local computer. Computer which is being
connected to i.e. which accepts the connection known as remote computer. When the
connection is established between local and remote computer. During telnet operation
whatever that is being performed on the remote computer will be displayed by local
computer. Telnet operates on client/server principle. Local computer uses telnet client
program and the remote computers uses telnet server program.

TELNET Commands :
Commands of the telnet are identified by a prefix character, Interpret As Command (IAC)
which is having code 255. IAC is followed by command and option codes. Basic format of
the command is as shown in the following figure :

Figure – Telnet command format

Following are some of the important TELNET commands :

Character Decimal Binary Meaning

1. Offering to enable.
2. Accepting a request to enable.
WILL 251 11111011

1. Rejecting a request to enable.

2. Offering to disable.
3. Accepting a request to disable.
WON’T 252 11111100

1. Approving a request to enable.

2. Requesting to enable.
DO 253 11111101`

1. Disapproving a request to enable.

2. Approving an offer to disable.
3. Requesting to disable.
DON’T 254 11111110
Following are some common options used with the telnet :

Code Option Meaning

0 Binary It interpret as 8-bit binary transmission.

1 Echo It will echo the data that received on one side to the other side.

3 Suppress go ahead It will suppress go ahead signal after data.

5 Status It will request for the status of TELNET.

6 Timing mark It define the timing marks.

8 Line width It specifies the line width.

9 Page size It specifies the number of lines in a page.

24 Terminal type It set the terminal type.

32 Terminal speed It set the terminal speed.

34 Line mode It will change to the line mode.

Modes of Operation :
Most telnet implementation operates in one of the following three modes :
Default mode
Character mode
Line mode

Default Mode :
 If there is no other modes are invoked then this mode is used.
 Echoing is performed in this mode by client.
 In this mode, user types a character and client echoes the character on the screen but it
does not send it until whole line is completed.
Character Mode :
 Each character typed in this mode is sent by client to server.
 Server in this type of mode is normally echoes character back to be displayed on the
client’s screen.
Line Mode :
 Line editing like echoing, character erasing etc. is done from the client side.
 Client will send the whole line to the server.

EMAIL
Electronic Mail (e-mail) is one of most widely used services of Internet. This service
allows an Internet user to send a message in formatted manner (mail) to the other Internet
user in any part of world. Message in mail not only contain text, but it also contains images,
audio and videos data. The person who is sending mail is called sender and person who
receives mail is called recipient. It is just like postal mail service.

Components of E-Mail System : The basic components of an email system are : User
Agent (UA), Message Transfer Agent (MTA), Mail Box, and Spool file. These are
explained as following below.
1. User Agent (UA) : The UA is normally a program which is used to send and receive
mail. Sometimes, it is called as mail reader. It accepts variety of commands for
composing, receiving and replying to messages as well as for manipulation of the
mailboxes.
2. Message Transfer Agent (MTA) : MTA is actually responsible for transfer of mail
from one system to another. To send a mail, a system must have client MTA and system
MTA. It transfer mail to mailboxes of recipients if they are connected in the same
machine. It delivers mail to peer MTA if destination mailbox is in another machine. The
delivery from one MTA to another MTA is done by Simple Mail Transfer

Protocol.
3. Mailbox : It is a file on local hard drive to collect mails. Delivered mails are present in
this file. The user can read it delete it according to his/her requirement. To use e-mail
system each user must have a mailbox . Access to mailbox is only to owner of mailbox.
4. Spool file : This file contains mails that are to be sent. User agent appends outgoing
mails in this file using SMTP. MTA extracts pending mail from spool file for their
delivery. E-mail allows one name, an alias, to represent several different e-mail
addresses. It is known as mailing list, Whenever user have to sent a message, system
checks recipient’s name against alias database. If mailing list is present for defined
alias, separate messages, one for each entry in the list, must be prepared and handed to
MTA. If for defined alias, there is no such mailing list is present, name itself becomes
naming address and a single message is delivered to mail transfer entity.

Services provided by E-mail system :

 Composition – The composition refer to process that creates messages and answers.
For composition any kind of text editor can be used.
 Transfer – Transfer means sending procedure of mail i.e. from the sender to recipient.
 Reporting – Reporting refers to confirmation for delivery of mail. It help user to check
whether their mail is delivered, lost or rejected.
 Displaying – It refers to present mail in form that is understand by the user.
 Disposition – This step concern with recipient that what will recipient do after
receiving mail i.e save mail, delete before reading or delete after reading.
 FTP
o FTP stands for File transfer protocol.
o FTP is a standard internet protocol provided by TCP/IP used for transmitting the files
from one host to another.
o It is mainly used for transferring the web page files from their creator to the computer
that acts as a server for other computers on the internet.
o It is also used for downloading the files to computer from other servers.

Objectives of FTP

o It provides the sharing of files.

o It is used to encourage the use of remote computers.
o It transfers the data more reliably and efficiently.

Why FTP?

Although transferring files from one system to another is very simple and straightforward, but
sometimes it can cause problems. For example, two systems may have different file
conventions. Two systems may have different ways to represent text and data. Two systems
may have different directory structures. FTP protocol overcomes these problems by
establishing two connections between hosts. One connection is used for data transfer, and
another connection is used for the control connection.

Mechanism of FTP
The above figure shows the basic model of the FTP. The FTP client has three components:
the user interface, control process, and data transfer process. The server has two components:
the server control process and the server data transfer process.

There are two types of connections in FTP:

o Control Connection: The control connection uses very simple rules for
communication. Through control connection, we can transfer a line of command or
line of response at a time. The control connection is made between the control
processes. The control connection remains connected during the entire interactive
FTP session.
o Data Connection: The Data Connection uses very complex rules as data types may
vary. The data connection is made between data transfer processes. The data
connection opens when a command comes for transferring the files and closes when
the file is transferred.

FTP Clients

o FTP client is a program that implements a file transfer protocol which allows you to
transfer files between two hosts on the internet.
o It allows a user to connect to a remote host and upload or download the files.
o It has a set of commands that we can use to connect to a host, transfer the files
between you and your host and close the connection.
o The FTP program is also available as a built-in component in a Web browser. This
GUI based FTP client makes the file transfer very easy and also does not require to
remember the FTP commands.

Advantages of FTP:
o Speed: One of the biggest advantages of FTP is speed. The FTP is one of the fastest
way to transfer the files from one computer to another computer.
o Efficient: It is more efficient as we do not need to complete all the operations to get
the entire file.
o Security: To access the FTP server, we need to login with the username and
password. Therefore, we can say that FTP is more secure.
o Back & forth movement: FTP allows us to transfer the files back and forth. Suppose
you are a manager of the company, you send some information to all the employees,
and they all send information back on the same server.
Disadvantages of FTP:
o The standard requirement of the industry is that all the FTP transmissions should be
encrypted. However, not all the FTP providers are equal and not all the providers
offer encryption. So, we will have to look out for the FTP providers that provides
encryption.
o FTP serves two operations, i.e., to send and receive large files on a network.
However, the size limit of the file is 2GB that can be sent. It also doesn't allow you to
run simultaneous transfers to multiple receivers.
o Passwords and file contents are sent in clear text that allows unwanted eavesdropping.
So, it is quite possible that attackers can carry out the brute force attack by trying to
guess the FTP password.
o It is not compatible with every system.

WWW
The World Wide Web is abbreviated as WWW and is commonly known as the web. The
WWW was initiated by CERN (European library for Nuclear Research) in 1989.
WWW can be defined as the collection of different websites around the world, containing
different information shared via local servers(or computers).
System Architecture:
From the user’s point of view, the web consists of a vast, worldwide connection of
documents or web pages. Each page may contain links to other pages anywhere in the
world. The pages can be retrieved and viewed by using browsers of which internet explorer,
Netscape Navigator, Google Chrome, etc are the popular ones. The browser fetches the
page requested interprets the text and formatting commands on it, and displays the page,
properly formatted, on the screen.
The basic model of how the web works are shown in the figure below. Here the browser is
displaying a web page on the client machine. When the user clicks on a line of text that is
linked to a page on the [Link] server, the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a
message to the [Link] server asking it for the page.
Here the browser displays a web page on the client machine when the user clicks on a line
of text that is linked to a page on [Link], the browser follows the hyperlink by sending a
message to the [Link] server asking for the page.
Working of WWW:
The World Wide Web is based on several different technologies: Web browsers, Hypertext
Markup Language (HTML) and Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP).
A Web browser is used to access web pages. Web browsers can be defined as programs
which display text, data, pictures, animation and video on the Internet. Hyperlinked
resources on the World Wide Web can be accessed using software interfaces provided by
Web browsers. Initially, Web browsers were used only for surfing the Web but now they
have become more universal. Web browsers can be used for several tasks including
conducting searches, mailing, transferring files, and much more. Some of the commonly
used browsers are Internet Explorer, Opera Mini, and Google Chrome.
Features of WWW:
 HyperText Information System
 Cross-Platform
 Distributed
 Open Standards and Open Source
 Uses Web Browsers to provide a single interface for many services
 Dynamic, Interactive and Evolving.
 “Web 2.0”

Components of the Web: There are 3 components of the web:

1. Uniform Resource Locator (URL): serves as a system for resources on the web.
2. HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP): specifies communication of browser and
server.
3. Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML): defines the structure, organisation and
content of a webpage.

HTTP
o HTTP stands for HyperText Transfer Protocol.
o It is a protocol used to access the data on the World Wide Web (www).
o The HTTP protocol can be used to transfer the data in the form of plain text,
hypertext, audio, video, and so on.
o This protocol is known as HyperText Transfer Protocol because of its efficiency that
allows us to use in a hypertext environment where there are rapid jumps from one
document to another document.
o HTTP is similar to the FTP as it also transfers the files from one host to another host.
But, HTTP is simpler than FTP as HTTP uses only one connection, i.e., no control
connection to transfer the files.
o HTTP is used to carry the data in the form of MIME-like format.
o HTTP is similar to SMTP as the data is transferred between client and server. The
HTTP differs from the SMTP in the way the messages are sent from the client to the
server and from server to the client. SMTP messages are stored and forwarded while
HTTP messages are delivered immediately.

Features of HTTP:

o Connectionless protocol: HTTP is a connectionless protocol. HTTP client initiates a

request and waits for a response from the server. When the server receives the request,
the server processes the request and sends back the response to the HTTP client after
which the client disconnects the connection. The connection between client and server
exist only during the current request and response time only.
o Media independent: HTTP protocol is a media independent as data can be sent as
long as both the client and server know how to handle the data content. It is required
for both the client and server to specify the content type in MIME-type header.
o Stateless: HTTP is a stateless protocol as both the client and server know each other
only during the current request. Due to this nature of the protocol, both the client and
server do not retain the information between various requests of the web pages.
HTTP Transactions

The above figure shows the HTTP transaction between client and server. The client initiates a
transaction by sending a request message to the server. The server replies to the request
message by sending a response message.

Messages

HTTP messages are of two types: request and response. Both the message types follow the
same message format.

Request Message: The request message is sent by the client that consists of a request line,
headers, and sometimes a body.
Response Message: The response message is sent by the server to the client that consists of a
status line, headers, and sometimes a body.

Uniform Resource Locator (URL)

o A client that wants to access the document in an internet needs an address and to
facilitate the access of documents, the HTTP uses the concept of Uniform Resource
Locator (URL).
o The Uniform Resource Locator (URL) is a standard way of specifying any kind of
information on the internet.
o The URL defines four parts: method, host computer, port, and path.

o Method: The method is the protocol used to retrieve the document from a server. For
example, HTTP.
o Host: The host is the computer where the information is stored, and the computer is
given an alias name. Web pages are mainly stored in the computers and the computers
are given an alias name that begins with the characters "www". This field is not
mandatory.
 o Port: The URL can also contain the port number of the server, but it's an optional
field. If the port number is included, then it must come between the host and path and
it should be separated from the host by a colon.
o Path: Path is the pathname of the file where the information is stored. The path itself
contain slashes that separate the directories from the subdirectories and files.

Bluetooth
It is a Wireless Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for exchanging
data over smaller distances. This technology was invented by Ericson in 1994. It operates in
the unlicensed, industrial, scientific and medical (ISM) band from 2.4 GHz to 2.485 GHz.
Maximum devices that can be connected at the same time are 7. Bluetooth ranges up to 10
meters. It provides data rates up to 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps depending upon the version. The
spreading technique that it uses is FHSS (Frequency-hopping spread spectrum). A
Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a collection of interconnected piconets is
called scatternet.

Bluetooth Architecture:

The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:

1. Piconet
2. Scatternet

Piconet:

Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the master
node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there is a
total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication
between the primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible
communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not
possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take
participation in communication unless it gets converted to the active state.
Scatternet:

It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can act as
master or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a message
from a master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet where
it is acting as a slave. This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station cannot be
mastered in two piconets.

Bluetooth protocol stack:

1. Radio (RF) layer: It performs modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It

defines the physical characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two types of
physical links: connection-less and connection-oriented.

2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system and is
equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the connection establishment
within a piconet.

3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already established
links which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is responsible for
creating the links, monitoring their health, and terminating them gracefully upon
command or failure.

4. Logical Link Control and Adaption Protocol layer: It is also known as the heart of
the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between upper and lower
layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data packets received from upper
layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also performs segmentation and
 multiplexing.

5. SDP layer: It is short for Service Discovery Protocol. It allows discovering the services
available on another Bluetooth-enabled device.

6. RF comm layer: It is short for Radio Frontend Component. It provides a serial

interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides emulation of serial ports over the
logical link control and adaption protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI
standard TS 07.10.

7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to exchange

objects between 2 devices.

8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.

9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony service. The
basic function of this layer is call control (setup & release) and group management for
gateway serving multiple devices.

10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.

Advantage:

 Low cost.
 Easy to use.
 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.

Disadvantages:

 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.

 It has a slow data transfer rate: of 3 Mbps.
 It has a small range: 10 meters.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
 The issues of handoffs have not been addressed.

Applications:

 Used in laptops, and in wireless PCs.

 In printers.
 In wireless headsets.
 Connecting digital camera wirelessly to a mobile phone.
 Data transfer from one cell phone to other cell phone or computer.
 Cryptography
Cryptography refers to the science and art of transforming messages to make them secure
and immune to attacks. It is a method of storing and transmitting data in a particular form so
that only those for whom it is intended can read and process it. Cryptography not only
protects data from theft or alteration but can also be used for user authentication.

Components

There are various components of cryptography which are as follows −

Plaintext and Ciphertext
The original message, before being transformed, is called plaintext. After the message is
transformed, it is called ciphertext. An encryption algorithm transforms the plaintext into
ciphertext; a decryption algorithm transforms the ciphertext back into plaintext. The sender
uses an encryption algorithm, and the receiver uses a decryption algorithm.
Cipher
We refer to encryption and decryption algorithms as ciphers. The term cipher is also used to
refer to different categories of algorithms in cryptography. This is not to say that every
sender-receiver pair needs their very own unique cipher for secure communication. On the
contrary, one cipher can serve millions of communicating pairs.
Key
A key is a number (or a set of numbers) that the cipher, as an algorithm, operates on. To
encrypt a message, we need an encryption algorithm, an encryption key, and plaintext. These
create the ciphertext. To decrypt a message, we need a decryption algorithm, a decryption
key, and the ciphertext. These reveal the original plaintext.

Types

There are two types of cryptography which are as follows −

Symmetric Key Cryptography
In symmetric-key cryptography, the same key is used by both parties. The sender uses this
key and an encryption algorithm to encrypt data; the receiver uses the same key and the
corresponding decryption algorithm to decrypt the data.
Asymmetric-Key Cryptography
In asymmetric or public-key cryptography, there are two keys: a private key and a public
key. The private key is kept by the receiver. The public key is announced to the public.
In public-key encryption/decryption, the public key that is used for encryption is different
from the private key that is used for decryption. The public key is available to the public, and
the private key is available only to an individual.