Introduction to Computer Networks

and Its Uses

 Overview
• Introduction to networks.
• Need for networks.
• Classification of networks.
 Introduction to Networks
• A network consists of two or more entities or objects sharing
resources and information.

• A computer network consists of two or more computing devices

connected to each other to share resources and information.

• The network becomes a powerful tool when computers communicate

and share resources with other computers on the same network or
entirely distinct networks.
 Introduction to Networks
• Computers on a network can act as a client or a server.

• A client is a computer that requests for resources.

• A server is a computer that controls and provides access to

resources.
 Introduction to Networks
• Data is a piece of information.

• The computing concept ‘hierarchy of data’ is used when planning a network.

• Data hierarchy refers to how data is organized and structured, typically in a tree-

like or layered fashion, with each level representing different levels of detail or

abstraction

• It is essential to maintain a hierarchy of data to manage and control resources

among computers.

• Network access to data must be evaluated carefully to avoid security issues.

 What is a Computer Network?

• A computer network is a group of interconnected

devices that can communicate and share resources

such as files, printers, and internet connections.

 Why are Networks Important?
• Resource sharing (files, printers)

• Communication (email, video conferencing)

• Centralized data management

• A framework where an organization's data is stored and managed in a single,
unified system rather than being scattered across multiple locations

• Data accessibility and collaboration

• Accessibility refers to the ease with which data can be located, accessed, and
used.

• Collaboration involves sharing and working with data across teams

 Basic Components of a Network
• Devices: Computers, Hubs, Switches, Routers, Gateways

• Transmission media: Wired (Ethernet), Wireless (Wi-Fi)

• Network Interface Cards (NICs)

• Protocols: TCP/IP
 Need for Networks
• A computer that operates independently from other computers is
called a stand-alone computer.
• Need for Networks is to
– Enhance communication.
– Share resources.
– Facilitate centralized management.

• The process of printing or transferring data from one system to

another using various storage devices is called sneakernet.
 Enhance Communication
• Computer networks use electronic mail (e-mail) as the choice for most
of the communication.

• By using networks, information can be sent to a larger audience in an

extremely fast and efficient manner.
 Share Resources
• A copy of data or application stored at a single central location is shared over a network.

• Computer peripheral devices, referred to as additional components, can be attached to a

computer and be shared in a network.

• Peripheral devices include faxes, modems, scanners, printers, and any other device that

connects to the computers.

• Equipment having common requirements can be shared in order to reduce maintenance cost.

• Important data can also be stored centrally to make it accessible to users, thereby saving

storage space on individual computers.

• Computer applications, which take up a considerable amount of storage space, can be installed

centrally on the network, saving storage space.

 Facilitate Centralized Management
• Networks are used to assist in management tasks associated with their own
operation and maintenance.

• Using networks results in increased efficiency and a resultant reduction in

maintenance costs.

• Software can be installed at a central location using servers, where the installation
files are made accessible over the network.
 Types of Networks
• PAN (Personal Area Network)
• LAN (Local Area Network)
• MAN (Metropolitan Area Network)
• WAN (Wide Area Network)
 What is a PAN?
• A Personal Area Network (PAN) is a small network
used for communication among personal devices
such as smartphones, laptops, and tablets within a
range of a few meters.

• Examples: Bluetooth, Infrared, USB connections.

 Characteristics of PAN
• Very short range (typically 10 meters)
• Used for personal devices
• Low power consumption
• Easy to set up and manage
 Uses of PAN
• Connecting smartphones to wireless earbuds
• File transfer between personal devices
• Wireless keyboards and mice
• Smartwatch and fitness band connections
 What is a LAN?
• A Local Area Network (LAN) is a network that
connects computers and devices in a limited area
such as a home, school, or office building.

• Example: Office network, home Wi-Fi network.

 Characteristics of LAN
• Covers a small geographical area
• High data transfer rates
• Owned and managed by a single organization
• Usually uses Ethernet or Wi-Fi
 Uses of LAN
• - File sharing among computers
• - Printer and peripheral sharing
• - Shared internet access
• - Online gaming in local settings
 What is a MAN?
• A Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers a larger
geographic area than a LAN but smaller than a
WAN. It connects users within a city or a large
campus.

• Example: Cable TV networks, city-wide Wi-Fi

 Characteristics of MAN
• Covers a city or large campus
• High-speed network infrastructure
• Owned by government or large organizations
• Often uses fiber optic cables
 Uses of MAN
• - City-wide broadband internet
• - Interconnecting campuses of a university
• - Connecting branch offices within a city
• - Public Wi-Fi access in urban areas
 What is a WAN?
• A Wide Area Network (WAN) spans a large
geographic area and connects multiple smaller
networks, such as LANs and MANs.

• Example: The Internet, corporate networks between

cities or countries.
 Characteristics of WAN
• Covers large geographical areas (cities, countries)
• Slower data transfer compared to LAN
• Uses public or leased communication lines
• Requires specialized network devices
 Uses of WAN
• Connecting branch offices globally
• Accessing cloud services
• Facilitating global business communication
• Remote work and teleconferencing
 Wired vs Wireless Networks
• Wired:
- High speed and reliability
- Less mobile

• Wireless:
- Greater mobility
- May have interference and lower speed
 Network Topologies
• Bus Topology
• Ring Topology
• Star Topology
• Mesh Topology
• Hybrid Topology
 Uses of Computer Networks
• Education: Online classes, digital libraries
• Business: Cloud computing, CRM tools
• Healthcare: Telemedicine, patient records
• Government: E-Governance
 Role of the Internet
• Backbone of global communication
• e-commerce, social networking, research
• Access to cloud services and online tools
 Security in Networks
• Firewalls to prevent unauthorized access
• Encryption for secure data transmission
• VPN for secure remote access
 Future Trends
• 6G Networks for faster data transmission
• IoT: Smart homes, connected devices
• Software-defined Networks (SDN) for flexible control
 Summary
• Computer networks enable efficient communication
and resource sharing
• Multiple types with distinct purposes
• Essential for modern applications across all
domains
 Data and Information
• Data refers to the raw facts that are collected while information refers to processed
data that enables us to take decisions.

• Example: When result of a particular test is declared it contains data of all students.

• When you find the marks you have scored you have the information that lets you
know whether you have passed or failed.

• The word data refers to any information which is presented in a form that is agreed
and accepted upon by is creators and users.
 Data Communication
What is Data Communication?
• Data Communication is a process of exchanging data or information.
• In case of computer networks this exchange is done between two devices over a
transmission medium.
• This process involves a communication system which is made up of hardware and
software.
• The hardware part involves the sender and receiver devices and the intermediate
devices through which the data passes.
• The software part involves certain rules which specify what is to be communicated,
how it is to be communicated and when, it is also called as a Protocol.
 Data Communication
What is Data Communication?
• Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a receiver
via form of transmission media such as a wire cable.
• Data communication is said to be local if communicating devices are in the same
building or a similarly restricted geographical area.

• Source: The device that transmits the data is known as source

• Receiver: The device that receives the transmitted data is known as receiver.
• Data communication aims at the transfer of data and maintenance of the data during
the process but not the actual generation of the information at the source and
receiver.
 Characteristics of Data Communication
The effectiveness of any data communications system depends upon the following four
fundamental characteristics:

1. Delivery: The data should be delivered to the correct destination and correct user.

2. Accuracy: The communication system should deliver the data accurately, without introducing any
errors. The data may get corrupted during transmission affecting the accuracy of the delivered data.

3. Timeliness: Audio and Video data has to be delivered in a timely manner without any delay; such a
data delivery is called real time transmission of data.

4. Jitter: It is the variation in the packet arrival time. Uneven jitter may affect the timeliness of data
being transmitted.
 Components of Data Communication System
Components of data communication system

A Communication system has following components:

1. Message: It is the information or data to be communicated. It can consist of text, numbers, pictures,
sound or video or any combination of these.

2. Sender: It is the device/computer that generates and sends that message.

3. Receiver: It is the device or computer that receives the message.

– The distance between sender and receiver depends upon the types of network used in between.

4. Medium: It is the channel or physical path through which the message is carried from sender to the
receiver. The medium can be wired like twisted pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable or wireless like
laser, radio waves, and microwaves.

5. Protocol: It is a set of rules that govern the communication between devices.

– Both sender and receiver follow same protocol to communicate with each other.

– A protocol defines what is to be communicated, how it is to be communicated and when it is to be

communicated.
 Data Flow
• Two devices communicate with each other by sending and receiving data.

• The data can flow between the two devices in the following ways.

1. Simplex

2. Half Duplex

3. Full Duplex

1. Simplex

• In Simplex, communication is unidirectional Figure: Simplex mode of communication

• Only one of the devices sends the data and the other one only receives the data.

• Example: in the above diagram: a CPU sends data while a monitor only receives data.
 Data Flow
2. Half Duplex

• In half duplex both the stations can transmit as well as receive but not at the same time.

• When one device is sending other can only receive and vice-versa

• Example: A walkie-talkie.

Figure: Half Duplex mode of communication

3. Full Duplex
• In Full duplex mode, both stations can transmit and receive at the same time.
• Example: mobile phones.

Figure: Full Duplex mode of communication

 Elements of a Protocol
• There are three key elements of a protocol:
A. Syntax
• It means the structure or format of the data.
• It is the arrangement of data in a particular order.
B. Semantics
• It tells the meaning of each section of bits and indicates the interpretation of each
section.
• It also tells what action/decision is to be taken based on the interpretation.
C. Timing
• It tells the sender about the readiness of the receiver to receive the data
• It tells the sender at what rate the data should be sent to the receiver to avoid
overwhelming the receiver.
 Functions of a Protocol
A protocol performs the following functions:

1. Data Sequencing: It refers to breaking a long message into smaller packets of fixed size. Data sequencing rules define
the method of numbering packets to detect loss or duplication of packets, and to correctly identify packets, which
belong to same message.

2. Data Routing: Data routing defines the most efficient path between the source and destination.

3. Data Formatting: Data formatting rules define which group of bits or characters within packet constitute data,
control, addressing, or other information.

4. Flow Control: A communication protocol also prevents a fast sender from overwhelming a slow receiver. It ensures
resource sharing and protection against traffic congestion by regulating the flow of data on communication lines.

5. Error Control: These rules are designed to detect errors in messages and to ensure transmission of correct messages.
The most common method is to retransmit erroneous message block. In such a case, a block having error is discarded
by the receiver and is retransmitted by the sender.
 Functions of a Protocol
6. Precedence and order of Transmission: These rules ensure that all the nodes get a chance to use the communication
lines and other resources of the network based on the priorities assigned to them.

7. Connection Establishment and Termination: These rules define how connections are established, maintained and
terminated when two nodes of a network want to communicate with each other.

8. Data Security: Providing data security and privacy is also built into most communication software packages. It prevents
access of data by unauthorized users.

9. Log Information: Several communication software are designed to develop log information, which consists of all jobs and
data communications tasks that have taken place. Such information may be used for charging the users of the network
based on their usage of the network resources.
 Types of Data Transmission

Parallel Transmission
Definition: Within a computing or communication
device, the distances between different subunits are
too short.

• Thus, it is normal practice to transfer data between subunits using a separate wire to carry each bit of data.

• There are multiple wires connecting each sub-unit and data is exchanged using a parallel transfer mode.

• This mode of operation results in minimal delays in transferring each word.

• In parallel transmission, all the bits of data are transmitted simultaneously on separate communication lines.

• In order to transmit ‘n’ bits, ‘n’ wires or lines are used. Thus each bit has its own line.

• All ‘n’ bits of one group are transmitted with each clock pulse from one device to another i.e. multiple bits are sent with
each clock pulse.

• Parallel transmission is used for short distance communication.

 Parallel Data Transmission

Sender
Simultaneous Transmission of 8-bit data Receiver

• Advantage of Parallel Transmission

• It is speedy way of transmitting data as multiple bits are transmitted simultaneously with a single clock pulse.

• Disadvantage of Parallel Transmission

It is costly method of data transmission as it requires ‘n’ lines to transmit ‘n’ bits at the same time.
 Serial Transmission

Serial Transmission
Definition:
Data is transmitted as a single bit at a time using a fixed
time interval for each bit.

• This mode of transmission is known as bit-serial transmission.

• When transferring data between two physically separate devices, especially if the separation is more than a few
kilometres, for reasons of cost, it is more economical to use a single pair of lines.

• In serial transmission, the various bits of data are transmitted serially one after the other.

• It requires only one communication line rather than n lines to transmit data from sender to receiver.

• Thus all the bits of data are transmitted on single line in serial fashion.

• In serial transmission, only single bit is sent with each clock pulse.
 Serial Data Transmission

• As shown in the above figure, suppose an 8-bit data 11001010 is to be sent from source to destination.

• The Least Significant Bit (LSB) i.e., 0 will be transmitted first followed by other bits.

• The Most Significant Bit (MSB) i.e., 1 will be transmitted in the end via single communication line.

• The internal circuitry of computer transmits data in parallel fashion. So in order to change this parallel data into serial
data, conversion devices are used.

• These conversion devices convert the parallel data into serial data at the sender side so that it can be transmitted over
single line.

• On receiver side, serial data received is again converted to parallel form so that the interval circuitry of computer can
accept it.

• Serial transmission is used for long distance communication.

 Serial Data Transmission
Advantage of Serial Transmission

• Use of single communication line reduces the transmission line cost by the factor of ‘n’ as compared to parallel
transmission.

• Disadvantages of Serial Transmission

1. Use of conversion devices at source and destination end may lead to increase in overall transmission cost.

2. This method is slower as compared to parallel transmission as bits are transmitted serially one after the other.

Types of Serial Transmission

• There are two types of serial transmission - Synchronous and Asynchronous both these transmissions use 'Bit
synchronization'

• Bit Synchronization is a function that is required to determine when the beginning and end of the data transmission
occurs.

• Bit synchronization helps the receiving computer to know when data begin and end during a transmission.

• Therefore bit synchronization provides timing control.

 Asynchronous Data Transmission
• Asynchronous transmission sends only one character at a time where a character is either a letter of the alphabet or
number or control character i.e. it sends one byte of data at a time.

• Bit synchronization between two devices is made possible using start bit and stop bit.

• Start bit indicates the beginning of data i.e. alerts the receiver to the arrival of new group of bits. A start bit usually 0
is added to the beginning of each byte.

• Stop bit indicates the end of data i.e. to let the receiver know that byte is finished, one or more additional bits are
appended to the end of the byte.

• These bits, usually 1s are called stop bits.

Start and Stop bit

 Asynchronous Data Transmission
• Addition of start and stop increase the number of data bits. Hence more bandwidth is consumed in asynchronous
transmission.

• There is idle time between the transmissions of different data bytes.

• This idle time is also known as Gap

• The gap or idle time can be of varying intervals.

• This mechanism is called Asynchronous, because at byte level sender and receiver need not to be synchronized.

• But within each byte, receiver must be synchronized with the incoming bit stream.

Applications of Asynchronous Transmission

1. Asynchronous transmission is well suited for keyboard type-terminals and paper tape devices. The advantage of this
method is that it does not require any local storage at the terminal or the computer as transmission takes place
character by character.

2. Asynchronous transmission is best suited to Internet traffic in which information is transmitted in short bursts.
This type of transmission is used by modems.
Advantages of Asynchronous Transmission
1. This method of data transmission is cheaper in cost as compared to synchronous e.g. If lines are short, asynchronous
transmission is better, because line cost would be low and idle time will not be expensive.

2. In this approach each individual character is complete in itself, therefore if character is corrupted during transmission, its
successor and predecessor character will not be affected.

3. It is possible to transmit signals from sources having different bit rates.

4. The transmission can start as soon as data byte to be transmitted becomes available.

5. Moreover, this mode of data transmission in easy to implement.

Disadvantages of Asynchronous Transmission

1. This method is less efficient and slower than synchronous transmission due to the overhead of extra bits and insertion of
gaps into bit stream.

2. Successful transmission inevitably depends on the recognition of the start bits. These bits can be missed or corrupted.
 Synchronous Data Transmission
• Synchronous transmission does not use start and stop bits.

• In this method bit stream is combined into longer frames that may contain multiple bytes.

• There is no gap between the various bytes in the data stream.

• In the absence of start & stop bits, bit synchronization is established between sender & receiver by 'timing' the
transmission of each bit.

• Since the various bytes are placed on the link without any gap, it is the responsibility of receiver to separate the bit
stream into bytes so as to reconstruct the original information.

• In order to receive the data error free, the receiver and sender operates at the same clock frequency.
Application of Synchronous Transmission
1. Synchronous transmission is used for high speed communication between computers

Advantages of Synchronous Transmission

1. This method is faster as compared to asynchronous as there are no extra bits (start bit & stop bit) and also there is
no gap between the individual data bytes.

Disadvantages of Synchronous Transmission

1. It is costly as compared to asynchronous method. It requires local buffer storage at the two ends of line to assemble
blocks and it also requires accurately synchronized clocks at both ends. This lead to increase in the cost.

2. The sender and receiver have to operate at the same clock frequency. This requires proper synchronization which
makes the system complicated.
 Comparison between
Serial and Parallel Transmission

Serial Parallel
S. No Factor
Transmission Transmission
Number of bits
1 transmitted at one One bit ‘n’ bits
clock pulse
Number of lines
2 One line ‘n’ lines
transmit ‘n’ bits
Speed of data
3 Slow Fast
transfer
Cost of Low as one line High as ‘n’ lines
4
transmission is required are required
Long distance Short distance
communication communication
5 Application
between two like computer to
computers printer
 Comparison between
Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmission

S. No Factor Asynchronous Synchronous

Data send at one

1 Usually One byte Multiple bytes
time

2 Start and Stop bit Used Not used

Gap between data

3 Present Absent
units
Data transmission
4 Slow Fast
speed

5 Cost Low High

A Communication Model
 A Communication Model
• Source
– Generates the data to be transmitted.
– Examples: Telephones and Personal Computers.

• Transmitter
– Converts data into transmittable signals.
– Example, a modem takes a digital bit stream from an attached device such as a personal computer
and transforms that bit stream into an analog signal that can be handled by the telephone network.

• Transmission System
– Carries data.
– This can be a single transmission line or a complex network connecting source and destination.

• Receiver
– Converts received signal into data.
– Example, a modem will accept an analog signal coming from a network or transmission line and
convert it into a digital bit stream.

• Destination
– Takes incoming data.
 Communication Tasks

Transmission system utilization Addressing

Interfacing Routing

Signal generation Recovery

Synchronization Message formatting

Exchange management Security

Error detection and correction Network management

Flow control
 Communication Tasks
Transmission System Utilization
✓ Efficient use of transmission facilities,
• Example: multiplexing, congestion control
Interfacing
✓ Electromagnetic signals propagated over the transmission medium
Signal Generation
✓ Signal must be capable of being propagated through transmission system
✓ Signal must be interpretable as data at the receiver
Synchronization
✓ Between transmitter and receiver
✓ Receiver should determine when a signal begins to arrive, when it ends, and
its duration
 Communication Tasks
Exchange Management
✓ If data are exchanged in both directions
✓ Must be decided whether both devices may tranmit simultaneously or in turns, the amount and format of data
etc.,

Error detection and correction

✓ Errors may occur, since transmitted signals may be distorted before reaching the receiver.

Flow control
✓ To assure that the source does not overwhelm the destination by sending data faster than they can be
processed by the receiver.

Addressing and Routing

✓ When more than two devices share a transmission facility, a source system must indicate the identity of the
intended destination
✓ The transmitter system must assure that only the destination system receives the data
 Communication Tasks
Recovery
✓ To resume activity in case of interruption during info exchange

Formatting
✓ Agreement to the form of data to be exchanged

Security
✓ The sender of data wants to be assured that only the intended receiver actually receives the data

Network Management
✓ For system configuration
✓ Monitoring the system status
✓ Planning
✓ Alarm reporting and troubleshooting
Data Communication Model

Fig: Simplified Data Communication Model

 Delays

❑ Propagation Delay: The time it takes a signal to propagate from one node to the next.

❑ This time is generally negligible.

❑ The speed of electromagnetic signals through a wire medium, it is typically 2  108 m/s.

❑ Transmission Time: The time it takes for a transmitter to send out a block of data.

❑ For example, it takes 1 s to transmit a 10,000-bit block of data onto a 10-kbps line.

❑ Node Delay: The time it takes for a node to perform the necessary processing as it

switches data.
 Effect of Packet Size on Transmission Time
❑ There is a significant relationship between packet size and transmission
time.
❑ The message to be sent comprises 40 octets, with 3 octets of control
information at the beginning of each packet in the header.
❑ If the entire message is sent as a single packet of 43 octets (3 octets of
header plus 40 octets of data), then the packet is first transmitted from
station X to node. When the entire packet is received, it can then be
transmitted from a to b. When the entire packet is received at node b, it is
then transferred to station Y. Ignoring switching time, total transmission
time is 129 octet-times (43 octets  3 packet transmissions).
❑ By breaking the message into two packets with 20 octets of message and 3
octets of header each. In this case, node a can begin transmitting the first
packet as soon as it has arrived from X. Because of this overlap in
transmission, the total transmission time drops to 92 octet-times.
❑ By breaking the message into five packets, each intermediate node can
begin transmission even sooner, with a total of 77 octet-times for
transmission.
❑ This process of using more and smaller packets eventually results in
increased, rather than reduced delay
 Effect of Packet Size on Transmission Time
❑ Data: 40 octets
❑ Header: 3 Octets
❑ Number of Intermediate Nodes: 2
❑ Transmission Time = (Packet Size including Header in octets) * (Number
of Intermediate Nodes + Number of Packets) octet times
***********************************************************************************
❑ Case 1: Number of Packets:1
Packet Size (including Header): 43 octets
Transmission Time: 43*(2+1)=43*3= 129 octet times.
❑ Case 2: Number of Packets:2
Packet Size (including Header): 23 octets
Transmission Time: 23*(2+2)=24*4= 92 octet times.
❑ Case 3: Number of Packets:5
Packet Size (including Header): 11 octets
Transmission Time: 11*(2+5)=11*7= 77 octet times.
❑ Case 4: Number of Packets:10
Packet Size (including Header): 7 octets
Transmission Time: 7*(2+10)=7*12= 84 octet times.
 Line Configuration
❑ Two characteristics that distinguish various data link configurations are

a) Topology and

b) whether the link is half duplex or full duplex.

❑ physical arrangement of stations on medium

❑ point to point - two stations

❑ such as between two routers / computers

❑ multi point - multiple stations

❑ traditionally mainframe computer and terminals

❑ now typically a local area network (LAN)

Line Configuration - Topology
 Advantages of Multipoint Configuration
over Point-Point Configuration

❑ If each terminal has a point-to-point link to its computer, then the computer must have one

I/O port for each terminal.

❑ Also there is a separate transmission line from the computer to each terminal.

❑ In a multipoint configuration, the computer needs only a single I/O port and a single

transmission line, which saves costs.

❑ Traditional multipoint topologies are made possible when the terminals are only transmitting a

fraction of the time.

 Line Configuration - Duplex
❑ classify data exchange as half or full duplex

❑ half duplex (two-way alternate)

❑ only one station may transmit at a time

❑ requires one data path

❑ full duplex (two-way simultaneous)

❑ simultaneous transmission and reception between two stations

❑ requires two data paths

❑ separate media or frequencies used for each direction

❑ or echo canceling
 Network Topologies

❑ Describe the basic and hybrid LAN physical topologies, and their uses, advantages and

disadvantages

❑ Describe the backbone structures that form the foundation for most LANs
 Simple Physical Topologies

❑ Physical topology: physical layout of nodes on a network

❑ Three fundamental shapes:

✓ Bus

✓ Ring

✓ Star

❑ May create hybrid topologies

❑ Topology integral to type of network, cabling infrastructure, and transmission

media used
 Bus Topology

❑ Single cable connects all network nodes without intervening connectivity

devices

❑ Devices share responsibility for getting data from one point to another

❑ Terminators stop signals after reaching end of wire

✓ Prevent signal bounce

❑ Inexpensive, not very scalable

❑ Difficult to troubleshoot, not fault-tolerant

Bus Topology (continued)
 Advantages of Bus Topology

Advantages

✓ Works well for small networks

✓ Relatively inexpensive to implement

✓ Easy to Implement and extend

✓ Well suited for temporary networks that must be set up in a hurry

✓ Failure of one station does not affect others

 Disadvantages of Bus Topology
Disadvantages

➢ Difficult to administer/troubleshoot

➢ Limited cable length and number of stations

➢ A cable break can disable the entire network; no redundancy

➢ Maintenance costs may be higher in the long run

➢ Performance degrades as additional computers are added

➢ Potential for congestion with network traffic

Ring Topology
Ring Topology
 Ring Topology
❑ Each node is connected to the two nearest nodes so the entire network
forms a circle
❑ One method for passing data on ring networks is token passing

❑ started out as a simple peer-to-peer LAN topology

❑ Each networked workstation had two connections: one to each of its nearest
neighbours
❑ Data will be transmitted unidirectionally around the ring

❑ Sending and receiving of data takes place by the help of TOKEN

 Token Passing in Ring Topology

❑ Token contains a piece of information which along with data is sent by the source

computer

❑ This token then passes to next node, which checks if the signal is intended to it

✓ If yes, it receives it and passes the empty to into the network

✓ otherwise passes token along with the data to next node

 Advantages of Ring Topology

❑ Easier to manage; easier to locate a defective node or cable problem

❑ Well-suited for transmitting signals over long distances on a LAN

❑ Handles high-volume network traffic

❑ Enables reliable communication

❑ This type of network topology is very organized

❑ Performance is better than that of Bus topology

❑ No need for network server to control the connectivity between workstations

❑ Additional components do not affect the performance of network

❑ Each computer has equal access to resources

 Disadvantages of Ring Topology

❑ Expensive

❑ Requires more cable and network equipment at the start

❑ Each packet of data must pass through all the computers between source and

destination, slower than star topology

❑ If one workstation or port goes down, the entire network gets affected

❑ Network is highly dependent on the wire which connects different components

❑ Not used as widely as bus topology

❑ Fewer equipment options

❑ Fewer options for expansion to high-speed communication

Star Topology
Shared Medium Bus and Hub
 Star Topology
❑ Have connections to networked devices that “radiate” out form a common point or Hub

❑ Every node on the network is connected through a central device Hub

❑ Any single cable connects only two devices

❑ Cabling problems affect two nodes at most

❑ Requires more cabling than ring or bus networks

❑ More fault-tolerant

❑ Easily moved, isolated, or interconnected with other networks

❑ Scalable

❑ Supports max of 1024 addressable nodes on logical network.

❑ Each networked device in star topology can access the media independently

❑ Have become the dominant topology type in contemporary LANs

❑ Stars have made buses and rings obsolete in LAN topologies

 Advantages of Star Topology

❑ Compared to Bus topology it gives far much better performance

❑ Easy to connect new nodes or devices

❑ Centralized management. It helps in monitoring the network

❑ Failure of one node or link doesn’t affect the rest of network

❑ Good option for modern networks

❑ Low startup costs

❑ Easy to manage

❑ Offers opportunities for expansion

❑ Most popular topology in use; wide variety of equipment available

 Disadvantages of Star Topology

❑ Hub is a single point of failure

✓ If central device or hub fails, whole network goes down

✓ The use of hub as central device increases the overall cost of the network

❑ Requires more cable than the bus

❑ Performance and as well number of nodes which can be added in such topology is

depended on capacity of central device.

Hybrid Physical Topologies:
Star-Wired Ring
Star-wired Bus
 Two-tiered Topology

❑ A two-tiered topology is a modified version of the basic star topology.

❑ Rather than single concentrator routers, two or more routers are used

❑ A two-tiered WAN constructed with dedicated facilities offers improved fault

tolerance over the simple star topology without compromising scalability

 Two-tiered Topology

User Location B
User Location A

T1 T1 T1 T1 T1

User Location C User Location D User Location F

User Location E
 Three-tiered Topology
❑ WANs that need to interconnect a
User Location A

very large number of sites, or are

Backbone tier

built using smaller routers that T1 T1

T1

can support only a few serial

User Location D

connections, may find the two-

User Location B

T1 T1 T1
56Kb 56Kb

Concentrator tier User Location C

tiered architecture insufficiently

scalable.

❑ Therefore, adding a third tier may

User Tier

User Location E User Location F User Location G User Location H

well provide the additional

scalability they require

 Advantages and Disadvantages of
three-tiered Topology
Advantage:

❑ A three-tiered WAN constructed with dedicated facilities offers even greater fault

tolerance and scalability than the two-tiered topology

Disadvantage:

❑ Three-tiered networks are expensive to build, operate and maintain

 Full-mesh topology

User Location A

T1
T1

T1
T1

T1 T1 User Location C
User Location B

User Location D
 Full-mesh Topology
❑ This topology features the ultimate reliability and fault tolerance

❑ Every networked node is directly connected to every other networked node

❑ Redundant routes to each location are plentiful, hence static routing impractical.

❑ Use dynamic routing protocols

❑ One application would be to provide interconnectivity for a limited number of

routers that require high network availability

❑ Another potential application is to fully mesh just parts of the WAN, such as the
backbone of a multitiered WAN or tightly coupled work centers
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Full-mesh Topology
Advantages:

❑ Minimizes the number of hops between any two network-connected machines

❑ Can be built with virtually any transmission technology

Disadvantages:

❑ These WANs can be fairly expensive to build

❑ A finite (although substantial) limit on the scalability of the network

 Partial-mesh Topology

User Location A

T1
T1

T1
T1

User Location C
User Location B

User Location D
 Partial-mesh topology

❑ Partial meshes are highly flexible topologies that can take a variety of very

different configurations

❑ The routers are much more tightly coupled than any of the basic topologies but

are not fully interconnected, as would be the case in a fully meshed network

❑ A partially meshed WAN topology is readily identified by the almost complete

interconnection of every node with every other node in the network

 Advantages of partial-mesh Topology

❑ Partial meshes offer the capability to minimize hops for the bulk of the WAN’s users

❑ Unlike fully meshed networks, a partial mesh can reduce the startup and operational

expenses by not interconnecting low-traffic segments of the WAN, hence more affordable

and scalable
 Hybrid Topologies

❑ Hybridization of multiple topologies is useful in larger, more complex networks

❑ Multitiered networks, in particular, lend themselves to hybridization.

❑ A multitiered WAN can be hybridized by fully or partially meshing the backbone

tier of routers

❑ An effective hybrid topology may be developed in a multitiered WAN by using a

fully meshed topology for the backbone nodes only

 Hybrid Topology
T3

T3 T3

Backbone tier

T1
T1 T1

User Location D
User Location B

T1 T1 T1
56Kb 56Kb

Concentrator tier User Location C

User Tier

User Location E User Location F User Location G User Location H

 Daisy chains
❑ Developed by serially interconnecting all the hubs of a network

❑ This simple approach uses ports on existing hubs for interconnecting the hubs

❑ Daisy chains are easily built and don’t require any special administrative skills

❑ Daisy chains were, historically, the interconnection method of choice for emerging, first-generation LANs
 Disadvantage of Daisy Chain
❑ Increases the number of connections, and therefore the number of devices, on a LAN.

❑ Too many devices competing for the same amount of bandwidth can create collisions and

quickly incapacitate a LAN

 An Example of a Network

Printer/
Router Resource

Hub
Bridge
Node

Hub

Internet
Inter-networking Devices
 Inter-networking Devices
❑ REPEATERS Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Repeaters are devices that amplify and retransmit signals, extending the reach of wired or
wireless networks

❑ HUBS Physical Layer (Layer 1)

Hubs are simple connection points that broadcast data to all connected devices.

❑ BRIDGES Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

Bridges connect two networks using the same protocol, forwarding data selectively.

❑ SWITCHES Data Link Layer and Network Layer (Layer 2 & 3)

A Switch can check the errors before forwarding the data, which makes it more efficient and
improves its performance. A switch is the better version of a hub. It is a multi-port bridge device

❑ ROUTERS Network Layer (Layer 3)

Routers connect different networks and route traffic based on IP addresses.

❑ GATEWAYS Network Layer and Application Layer (Layer 3 & 7)

Gateways act as an interface between networks, potentially translating protocols
 Physical Layer: Repeaters
➢ A repeater operates at the physical layer. Its task is to regenerate the
signal over the same network before the signal becomes too weak or
corrupted.
➢ A repeater is a regenerator, not an amplifier.
➢ When the signal becomes weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and
regenerate it at the original strength.
 Physical Layer: Repeaters
❑ Distance limitation in local-area networks
❑ Electrical signal becomes weaker as it travels

❑ Imposes a limit on the length of a LAN

❑ Repeaters join LANs together

❑ Analog electronic device

❑ Continuously monitors electrical signals on each LAN

❑ Transmits an amplified copy

Repeater
 Physical Layer: Hubs
Hub :
➢ A hub is device used to connect several computers together.
➢ Hubs cannot filter data, so data packets are sent to all connected devices.
➢ Also, they do not have intelligence to find out best path for data packets which leads to
inefficiencies and wastage.

Types of Hub
Active Hub :- Active hubs use electronics to amplify and clean up the signal before it is
broadcast to the other ports.
Passive Hub :- Passive hubs simply connect all ports together electrically and they are not
powered.
 Physical Layer: Hubs
❑ Joins multiple input lines electrically
❑ Designed to hold multiple line cards

❑ Do not necessarily amplify the signal

❑ Very similar to repeaters

❑ Also operates at the physical layer Hub

Hub
Hub Hub
 Limitations of Repeaters and Hubs
❑ One large shared link
❑ Each bit is sent everywhere
❑ So, aggregate throughput is limited
❑ E.g., three departments each get 10 Mbps independently
❑ … and then connect via a hub and must share 10 Mbps

❑ Cannot support multiple LAN technologies

❑ Does not buffer or interpret frames
❑ So, can’t interconnect between different rates or formats
❑ E.g., 10 Mbps Ethernet and 100 Mbps Ethernet

❑ Limitations on maximum nodes and distances

❑ Shared medium imposes length limits (see next lecture)
❑ E.g., cannot go beyond 2500 meters on Ethernet
 Link Layer: Bridges
[Link]:
➢ A bridge operates at data link layer.
➢ A bridge is a repeater, with add on functionality of filtering content by reading the MAC
addresses of source and destination.
➢ It is also used for interconnecting two LANs working on the same protocol.
➢ Bridges can filter out noise.
 Link Layer: Bridges
• Connects two or more LANs at the link layer
• Extracts destination address from the frame

• Looks up the destination in a table

• Forwards the frame to the appropriate LAN segment

• Each segment can carry its own traffic

Host Host Host Host Host Host

BRIDGE

Host Host Host Host Host Host

 Bridges

❑ Bridge operates in data link layer of OSI Model.

❑ Ability to expand beyond single LAN

❑ Provide interconnection to other LANs

❑ Use Bridge or Router

❑ Bridge is simpler
❑ Connects similar LANs, following the same protocol

❑ Identical protocols for physical and link layers

❑ Minimal processing

❑ Router more general purpose

❑ Interconnect various LANs and WANs
 Why Bridge? and its Functions

❑ Reliability

❑ Performance

❑ Security

❑ Geography

Functions of a Bridge

❑ Read all frames transmitted on one LAN and accept those address to any station on
the other LAN

❑ Using MAC protocol for second LAN, retransmit each frame

❑ Do the same the other way round

 Bridge Design Aspects

❑ No modification to content or format of frame

❑ No encapsulation

❑ Minimal buffering to meet peak demand

❑ Contains routing and address intelligence

❑ Must be able to tell which frames to pass

❑ May be more than one bridge to cross

❑ Connects more than two LANs

❑ Bridging is transparent to stations

❑ Appears to all stations on multiple LANs as if they are on one single LAN
Backbone Bridge
Interconnection Without Backbone

❑ Not recommended for two reasons:

- single point of failure at Computer Science hub

- all traffic between EE and SE must path over CS segment

 Link Layer: Switches B

❑ Typically connects individual computers

A C
❑ A switch is essentially the same as a bridge

❑ … though typically used to connect hosts, not LANs SWITCH

❑ Like bridges, support concurrent communication

D
❑ Host A can talk to C, while B talks to D

❑ A network switch is a computer networking device that connects network segments.

❑ Switch is data link layer device.
❑ Switch can perform error checking before forwarding data, that makes it very efficient as it
does not forward packets that have errors and forward good packets selectively to correct
port only.
 Link Layer: Switches
Dedicated Access and Full Duplex

❑ Dedicated access
❑ Host has direct connection to the switch

❑ … rather than a shared LAN connection

❑ Full duplex
❑ Each connection can send in both directions

❑ Host sending to switch, and host receiving from switch

❑ E.g., in 10BaseT and 100Base T

❑ Completely supports concurrent transmissions

❑ Each connection is a bidirectional point-to-point link

118
 Routers
❑ Routers operate at the network layer.

❑ A router is a device like a switch that routes data packets based on their IP addresses.

❑ Routers can choose the best route.

❑ Routers may split a message into several smaller messages for transmission.

❑ Routers process messages specifically addressed to it.

❑ Routers connect two or more LANs and WANs that use same or different data link
protocols , but the same network protocol

❑ Routers may be referred to as “black boxes”, computers with several NICs or special
network modules in computers

❑ In general they perform more processing on each message that bridges and therefore
operate more slowly
 Router Vs Bridge
Routers Bridges
Routers operate in the network layer of OSI
Bridge operates in data link layer of OSI Model.
Model.
The router is used to connect the LAN and The bridge is used to connect two different LAN
WAN. segments.
The router transmits data in the form of
Bridge transmit data in the form frames.
packets.
It reads the IP Address of a device. Bridge reads the MAC Address of a device.
The router has more ports compare to bridge. The bridge has only two ports.
The bridge does not use any routing table for
It uses routing table for sending data.
sending data.
It works on more than one broadcast domain. It works on a single broadcast domain.
Routers use a software-configured network Bridges determine the destination address with
address to determine the address. the help of the MAC address of the device.
With the help of MAC addresses of the devices, the
It communicates with other routers to decide
Bridges listen to the network traffic and then
the best way to transfer the data.
decide the way to send the data.
The bridge does not create multiple paths to send
The router creates multiple paths to send data.
data.
protocols such as RIP, IGRP, OSPF, etc can be Any routing protocols cannot be configured in a
configured in a router. bridge.
 Gateways
❑ A gateway, as the name suggests, is a passage to connect two networks together that may work
upon different networking models.

❑ They basically work as the messenger agents that take data from one system, interpret it, and
transfer it to another system.

❑ Gateways are also called protocol converters and can operate at any network layer.

❑ Gateways are generally more complex than switch or router.

❑ The gateways provides both the basic system interconnection and the necessary translation
between the protocols in both directions.

❑ Two type of gateways:

❑ Network gateway:- Terminates the network level protocol

❑ Application gateway:- Translates the application level protocol

 Brouters
❑ It is also known as bridging router is a device which combines features of both bridge and
router.

❑ It can work either at data link layer or at network layer.

❑ Working as router, it is capable of routing packets across networks; working as bridge, it is

capable of filtering local area network traffic.

Modem
Modem :
Modem means Modulator- Demodulator.
Modulation : digital information to analog signals.
Demodulation: Analog signal back into digital information.
 Network Interface Cards
Network Interface Card (NIC):
➢ NIC provides physical interface between computer and cabling.
➢ NIC prepares data, sends data, and controls the flow of data.
➢ It can also receive and translate data into bytes for the CPU to understand.
➢ It has specific MAC address.

✓ Network Interface Card is a hardware device that is installed

on the computer so that it can be connected to the internet.
✓ It is also called Ethernet Card or Network Adapter.
✓ Every NIC has a 48-bit unique serial number called a MAC
address which is stored in ROM carried on the card.
✓ Every computer must have at least one NIC if it wants to
connect to the internet.
 Access Point
❑ An Access Point(AP), also called as (Wireless Access Point) WAP.

❑ WAP is a hardware device that establishes connections of computer devices on wireless

LAN with a fixed wire network.

❑ AP is a station that transmits and receives data.

❑ AP has a range of (up to 150 feet for home based APs).

❑ Wireless routers can function as (AP), but not all APs can work as routers.
 Standardized Protocol Architectures

❑ Required for devices to communicate

❑ Vendors have more marketable products
❑ Customers can insist on standards based equipment
❑ Two standards:
❑ OSI Reference model
❑ Never lived up to early promises
❑ TCP/IP protocol suite
❑ Most widely used

❑ Also: IBM Systems Network Architecture (SNA)

 OSI Model
❑ Open Systems Interconnection

❑ Developed by the International Organization for Standardization

❑ Seven layers

❑ A theoretical system delivered too late!

❑ TCP/IP is the de facto standard

 OSI - The Model
❑ A layer model

❑ Each layer performs a subset of the required communication functions

❑ Each layer relies on the next lower layer to perform more primitive functions

❑ Each layer provides services to the next higher layer

❑ Changes in one layer should not require changes in other layers

OSI Layers
The OSI Environment
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Layer 1: The Physical Layer
❑ Describes mechanical, electrical, functional specifications
❑ Transmits bits over communication line
❑ Examples: 100Base-T, RS449, CCITT V.35

❑ Layer 2: The Data Link Layer

❑ Establishes and controls physical communications path before data sent
❑ Transmission error checking
❑ Error detection and control
❑ Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating a reliable link
❑ Higher layers may assume error free transmission
❑ Problem resolution (on other side)
✓ Examples: HDLC and Synchronous DLC
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Layer 3: The Network Layer

❑ Addressing and routing services moving data through network to destination

❑ Transport of information

❑ Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology

❑ Not needed on direct links

❑ Layer 4: The Transport Layer

❑ Maintains reliable data transmission between end users

✓ Example: Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)

❑ Exchange of data between end systems

❑ Error free

❑ In sequence

❑ No losses

❑ No duplicates

❑ Quality of service
 OSI Reference Model
❑ Layer 5: The Session Layer
❑ Provides user-oriented connection service
❑ Control of dialogues between applications
❑ Grouping
❑ Recovery
❑ Transfers data over communication lines
✓ Example: TCP/IP

❑ Layer 6: The Presentation Layer

❑ Data manipulation functions common to many applications
✓ Data Formatting and Coding,
✓ Compression
✓ Encryption

❑ Layer 7: The Application Layer

❑ Application programs, terminals, computers
✓ Access network
❑ Provides user interface
❑ Formats user data before passing to lower layers
 TCP/IP Model
❑ Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)
❑ Oldest transport protocol standard

❑ Internet communications basis

❑ File-transfer protocol: send large files error free

❑ TCP/IP

✓ Emphasizes internetworking

✓ Provides connectionless services

❑ Organizes communication system

❑ Three components: processes, hosts, networks

❑ Four/Five layers
 TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
❑ Developed by the US Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA) for
its packet switched network (ARPANET)

❑ Used by the global Internet

❑ No official model but a working one.

❑ Application layer Application layer
❑ Host to host or transport layer Transport layer
❑ Internet layer Network or IP layer
❑ Network access layer Host to Network layer
❑ Physical layer
 Physical Layer

❑ Physical interface between data transmission device

(e.g. computer) and transmission medium or network

❑ Characteristics of transmission medium

❑ Signal levels

❑ Data rates
 Network Access Layer

❑ Exchange of data between end system and network

❑ Destination address provision

❑ Invoking services like priority

 Internet Layer (IP)

❑ Systems may be attached to different networks

❑ Routing functions across multiple networks

❑ Implemented in end systems and routers

 Transport Layer (TCP)

❑ Reliable delivery of data

❑ Ordering of delivery
 Application Layer

❑ Support for user applications

❑ e.g. http, SMPT

 Similarity between OSI vs TCP/IP

❑ Both are based on the concept of a stack of independent protocols.

❑ The functionality of the layers is roughly similar.

 Differences between OSI vs TCP/IP
❑ OSI makes the distinction between services, ❑ TCP/IP does not originally clearly distinguish
interfaces, and protocol. between services, interface, and protocol.

❑ The OSI model was devised before the ❑ TCP/IP model was just a description of the
protocols were invented. It can be made to existing protocols. The model and the
work in diverse heterogeneous networks. protocol fit perfectly.

❑ OSI emphasis on providing a reliable data ❑ TCP/IP treats reliability as an end to end
transfer service Problem.

❑ Each layer of the OSI model detects and ❑ The transport layer handles all error
handles errors detection and recovery, it was checksums,

❑ All data transmitted includes checksums. acknowledgments and timeouts to control

❑ The transport layer checks source-destination transmissions and provides end-to-end

reliability. verification.

❑ Host on OSI implementations do not handle ❑ TCP/IP hosts participate in most network

network operations. protocols.

 Differences between OSI vs TCP/IP
OSI TCP/IP

TCP/IP model is based on standard protocols around which

OSI is a generic, protocol independent standard, acting as a
the Internet has developed. It is a communication protocol,
communication gateway between the network and end user.
which allows connection of hosts over a network.
In OSI model the transport layer guarantees the delivery of In TCP/IP model the transport layer does not guarantees
packets. delivery of packets. Still the TCP/IP model is more reliable.
OSI model has a separate Presentation layer and Session TCP/IP does not have a separate Presentation layer or
layer. Session layer.
Transport Layer is both Connection Oriented and
Transport Layer is Connection Oriented.
Connection less.
Network Layer is both Connection Oriented and Connection
Network Layer is Connection less.
less.
OSI is a reference model around which the networks are
TCP/IP model is, in a way implementation of the OSI model.
built. Generally it is used as a guidance tool.
Network layer of OSI model provides both connection The Network layer in TCP/IP model provides connectionless
oriented and connectionless service. service.
OSI model has a problem of fitting the protocols into the
TCP/IP model does not fit any protocol
model.
Protocols are hidden in OSI model and are easily replaced as
In TCP/IP replacing protocol is not easy.
the technology changes.
OSI model defines services, interfaces and protocols very
In TCP/IP, services, interfaces and protocols are not clearly
clearly and makes clear distinction between them.
separated. It is also protocol dependent.
It is protocol independent.
Additional Reading
 Computer Networks
❑ A computer network is a system for communicating between two or more computers and
associated devices

❑ A popular example of a computer network is the internet, which allows millions of

users to share information

❑ Computer networks can be classified according to their size:

– Personal area network (PAN)

– Local area network (LAN)

– Metropolitan area network (MAN)

– Wide area network (WAN)

 Personal Area Network
❑ A PAN is a network that is used for communicating among computers and computer devices (including telephones)

in close proximity of around a few meters within a room

❑ It can be used for communicating between the devices themselves, or for connecting to a larger network such

as the internet

❑ PAN’s can be wired or wireless

❑ PAN’s can be wired with a computer bus such as a universal serial bus:

USB (a serial bus standard for connecting devices to a computer-many

devices can be connected concurrently)

PAN’s can also be wireless through the use of bluetooth (a radio standard

designed for low power consumption for interconnecting computers and

devices such as telephones, printers or keyboards to the computer) or IrDA

(infrared data association) technologies

 Local Area Network
❑ A LAN is a network that is used for communicating among computer devices, usually within an

office building or home

❑ LAN’s enable the sharing of resources such as files or hardware devices that may be needed

by multiple users

❑ Is limited in size, typically spanning a few hundred meters, and no more than a mile

❑ Is very fast, with speeds from 2 Mbps to 10 Gbps

❑ Requires very little wiring, typically a single cable connecting to each device

❑ Has lower cost compared to MAN’s or WAN’s

 LAN Characteristics

❑ Limited distance within a few miles

❑ High data rate - 2 to 1000 Mbps

❑ Low error rate

❑ Good response time

❑ Private owned

❑ No regulation

❑ Share hardware, software, and data files

 LAN Hardware & Software
❑ Hardware
❑ PC: servers and clients

❑ Network interface card (NIC): physical address

❑ Media or Cables
✓ Unshielded twisted pair (inexpensive)

✓ Coaxial cable (faster, expensive)

✓ Optical fiber (fastest, expensive)

✓ Air for wireless

❑ Hub (compatible)
✓ connect wires and cables, repeater, error detection

❑ Software: network operating system

 LAN basics
❑ LAN’s can either be made wired or wireless. Twisted pair, coax or fiber optic cable can be used in wired LAN’s

❑ Nodes in a LAN are linked together with a certain topology. These topologies include:

❑ Bus

❑ Ring

❑ Star

❑ Branching tree

❑ A node is defined to be any device connected to the network. This could be a computer, a printer etc.

❑ A Hub is a networking device that connects multiple segments of the network together

❑ A Network Interface Card (NIC) is the circuit board that is used to connect computers to the network. In most cases, this is
an Ethernet card plugged in a computer’s motherboard

❑ The Network Operating System (NOS) is the software that enables users to share files and hardware and communicate with
other computers. Examples of NOS include: Windows XP, Windows NT, Sun Solaris, Linux, etc..

❑ Resource sharing in a LAN is accomplished with different access methods. These include:

❑ Token based access

❑ CSMA/CD
 Types of Ethernet LANs
❑ 10Base-T
❑ Operates at 10 Mbps
❑ IEEE 802.3 standard

❑ Fast Ethernet (100Base-T)

❑ Operates at 100 Mbps

❑ Gigabit Ethernet
❑ Operates at 1 Gbps
❑ Uses fiber optic cable

❑ 10 Gbps Ethernet
❑ Latest development of ethernet
❑ Uses fiber optic cable
❑ Developed to meet the increasing bandwidth needs of the LAN market

❑ Wireless Ethernet
❑ IEEE 802.11 standard
❑ Operates at around 2.4 Gbps
 Metropolitan Area Network
❑ Configuration spanning area larger than LAN
❑ Several blocks of buildings to entire city

✓ Not exceeding 100 km circumference

❑ Owned and operated by a single organization

❑ Used by many individuals and organizations

❑ May be owned and operated as public utilities

✓ Means for internetworking several LANs

❑ High-speed network often configured as a logical ring

 Wide Area Network
❑ Interconnects communication facilities in different parts of a country or world
❑ Operated as part of public utility

❑ Uses common carriers’ communications lines

❑ Telephone companies

❑ Uses broad range of communication media

❑ Satellite, microwaves

❑ WANs generally slower than LANs

❑ Examples: ARPAnet (first WAN), Internet (most widely recognized WAN)
 Differences Between LAN, MAN and WAN
S. No Parameter LAN MAN WAN
MAN stands for
LAN stands for Local WAN stands for Wide Area
1 Definition Metropolitan Area
Area Network Network
Network
LAN is often owned by MAN ownership can WAN ownership can be
2 Ownership
private organizations be private or public private or public
3 Speed High Average Low
Network Propagation
4 Short Moderate Long
Delay
LAN has low congestion MAN has higher WAN has higher congestion
5 Congestion
as compared to WAN congestion than LAN than both MAN and LAN
Fault Tolerance of Fault Tolerance of WAN is
Fault Tolerance of LAN
6 Fault Tolerance MAN is lower than lower than both LAN and
is higher than WAN
LAN MAN
Designing and Easy and less costly Complex and more Complex and more costly
7
Maintenance than WAN costly than LAN than both LAN and MAN
College, School,
8 Used for Small towns, City Country/Continent
Hospital

Multiple computers A huge group of

Single pair of devices
9 Allows can simultaneously computers communicate
to communicate
interact at the same time