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Materials Forming

Week # 3 Fundamentals of Metal forming

….continue

Continue Determination of flow curve

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Flow curve from plane strain compression test

True stress and True Strain in plane strain

compression test
• Simulates the stress state in rolling,
• Eliminates problems with barreling

’PC = F/wb and εPC = ln to/t

Equivalent true stress and true strain in uniaxial

compression test could be obtained from the
corresponding plane strain compression test:
 0 = ’PC(√3/2) = ’PC/1.155 t/b < 1
w/b > 5 (plain strain)
εc = ε PC (2/√3) = 1.155 ε PC 3

Flow curve from torsion test

Advantages
• Very large strains can be achieved

Disadvantages
• Nonuniform stress and strain
• Excessive material reorientation
• Not an accurate simulation of
metalworking processes.
Uniaxial strain Shear strain
Uniaxial stress

Shear stress 4

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Flow stress varies with strain

Strain hardening can be neglected in:

i- hot-working
ii- highly cold-worked metal.

The mean flow stress:

Deformation processing system

View-section of deformation processing system

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Temperature in Metal working

The temperature of the workpiece in metalworking depends on:

 Initial temperature of the tools and the material,

 Heat generation due to plastic deformation,
 Heat generated by friction at the die/material interface, and
 Heat transfer between the deforming material and the dies and
surrounding environment.

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Effect of temperature on
flow stress of titanium
alloy (Ti–6Al–4V)
fasteners for aerospace
applications

•DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2013.04.003

Effect of strain rate on flow

stress of titanium alloy (Ti–
6Al–4V) fasteners for
aerospace applications
(forged at 900oC)

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Temperature in Metal Forming

• For any metal, K and n in the flow curve depend on
temperature
• Both strength coefficient (K) and strain hardening (n)
are reduced at higher temperatures
• In addition, ductility is increased at higher temperatures
• Any deformation operation can be accomplished with lower
forces and power at elevated temperature
• Three temperature ranges in metal forming:
• Cold working
• Warm working
• Hot working
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Hot Working

• Deformation at temperatures above the recrystallization

temperature
• Recrystallization temperature = about one-half of
melting point on absolute scale
• In practice, hot working usually performed
somewhat above 0.6Tm
• Metal continues to soften as temperature increases
above 0.6Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working
above this level

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Advantages of Hot Working

• Very large deformations are possible in hot-
working due to recovery
• Flow stress decreases----Lower energy
needed
• Nearly No Strain hardening
• Ductility is significantly increased
• Decreasing the chemical inhomogeneities of
the cast-ingot structure.
• Blowholes and porosity are eliminated
• The coarse columnar grains of the casting
are broken down and refined into smaller
equiaxed recrystallized grains. Hot rolling effects on microstructure.

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Disadvantages of Hot Working

• Oxidation----- affects surface finish

• Surface decarburization of hot-worked steel
• Nonhomogeneous deformation ------finer
recrystallized grain size in outer surfaces
• Grain grown in the interior------due to slow
cooling

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Effect of temperature, pressure,

and strain rate

 Limit of temperature is
the solidus temperature of
the workpiece.
 As the strain rate of
deformation increases
more heat will be retained
in the workpiece

Schematic effect of temperature, pressure, and

strain rate on the allowable working range
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Strain rates range (s-1) of the different deformation processes

Typical values of velocity

 Ataya
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Cold Working

Cold working is plastic deformation under conditions such that

recrystallization does not occur with deformation

Typical variation of strength and ductility of cold-work-anneal cycle 17

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Effect of heat on cold worked materials

A is the critical value of cold

working (~ 5 to 7% for most metals)
to start recrystallization.
Trecryst. After cold working is around
2/3 Tm (in K)

Increasing of the nucleation sites with

the degree of cold working

 Ataya

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Warm Working

is the plastic deformation of a metal at temperatures below the

temperature range for recrystallization and above room temperature

Advantages:
• improved dimensional control,
• higher quality surfaces using proper lubrication, and
• lower energy costs.

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Friction and Lubrication

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Deformation processing system

Compression of circular disc

The stresses acting on an element of a forged disc

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Coulomb friction coefficient µ

µ=/p
Where:  is the shearing stress at the interface
(depends on µ)
p is the stress normal to the interface

Proportional friction coefficient m (for simplification)

m = i / k
Where:i is the interface shearing strength
k is the yield stress in shear
Value of m varies from 1 (sticking friction) to 0
(perfect sliding)
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Sticking Friction

• For a given a/h increasing friction

leads to increasing the deformation
pressure.
• role of friction becomes important at
large values of a/h.
• Sticking friction can be assumed in
HOT deformation with  ~ 0.577

Average deformation pressure in compression

of a disk as function of  and a/h. 23

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Friction effects

1. Increases the deformation forces.

2. Products with bad surface finishing.
3. Wear of the deformation tool.
4. Mass transfer (by adhesion) from the softer to the
harder metal.

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Selection and function of the metalworking lubricant

In selecting a lubricant, the workpiece, the die, and the

lubricant should be considered a total system.
The functions of a metalworking lubricant:

[Link] deformation load.

[Link] limit of deformation before fracture.
[Link] surface finish.
[Link] metal pickup an tools.
[Link] tool wear.
[Link] insulates the workpiece and the tools.
[Link] the workpiece and/or the tools.
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Residual stresses

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Residual stresses

• They are elastic stresses

• The sign of the residual stress will
be opposite to the sign of the
plastic strain which produced the
residual stress.
• Its maximum value can reach the (a) Inhomogeneous deformation in rolling of sheet;
yield stress of the material. (b) resulting distribution of longitudinal residual
stress over thickness of sheet

Metals containing residual stresses can be stress relieved by heating to a

temperature where the yield strength of the material is the same or less than
the value of the residual stress. 27

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Workability and formability

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• Workability is concerned with the extent to which a material can

be deformed in a specific metalworking process without the
formation of cracks.
• Workability limit can be measured by the formation of necking.
• Workability depends on :
i) material properties (from lab tests)-----(Material factor f1)
ii) Parameters of deformation (e.g. die geometry, lubrication,
workpiece geometry)------(Process factor f2)

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Extrusion has hydrostatic pressure

Wire drawing suffers from tensile

stress

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• The material factor (f1) in workability is represented by a strain

limit diagram for the material.
• The ratio of compressive and tensile
strains is varied by changing the D/h ratio
and the frictional conditions for upset
cylinders and by using other tests such as
bending and edge cracking in rolling.
Ideal compression
• Fracture occurs when the tensile and
compressive strains at fracture place
the strain state above the line with a
slope of ½. strain limit diagram
Fracture criterion expressed in terms of tensile
and compressive strains at fracture for upset and
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bend tests at room temperature.
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• The process factor (f2) is represented by strain paths (experimentally using

grids or numerically) at potential fracture sites in the material
• The strain path must reach this limiting value of strain without crossing
the fracture limit line.
• Strain path (a) does not meet this
criterion for material A, but by
improving the lubrication to shift the
strain path to curve b a bolt head can
be made without fracture.

• A successful bolt head could be made

with strain path a if the material were
changed from A to a more workable
Max Circumferential surface strain ln D/d.
material B.
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Formability is defined as the degree of deformation that can be

achieved in a metal forming process without creating an undesirable
condition, such as cracking, necking, buckling or the formation of
folds and flaws.

Keeler-Goodwin forming limit

diagram. 33

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