Ravi [Link].

Professor
ECE Dept, SCE Bangalore. ravishankarmn@[Link]

Module 1 – Signals, Systems, and Signal Processing

Signal - A Signal is defined as any physical quantity that varies with time, space or any other independent
variable or variables. Mathematically a signal is a function of one or more independent variables.
Examples s1(t) = 5t ----- one dimensional signal
s(x,y) = 2+ 3x + 2xy + y2 ----- Two dimensional signal
A Speech signal’s amplitude is a function of time is an example for one dimensional signal. The Picture signal
size depends on both horizontal and vertical coordinates is a two dimensional signal. The video signal is a
function of amplitude, intensity, Contrast, hue,.. etc is a multidimensional signal.

System – A System is a physical device that performs an operation on a signal

to generate the output or response. The operations performed by system is
known as Signal Processing which can be either or linear or non-linear.
Example - A filter used to reduce the noise and interference corrupting a desired information-bearing signal is
called a system. In this case the filter performs some operation(s) on the signal, which has the effect of reducing
(filtering) the noise and interference from the desired information-bearing signal.
Other examples are Communication System, Remote sensing system, A Government etc
Basic Elements of a Digital Signal Processing System
Figure shows the basic block diagram of Digital signal processing system. The analog signal is converted into
digital signal using a suitable ADC and the this digital signal is applied as input to a digital signal processor

The digital signal processor may be a large programmable digital computer or a small microprocessor
programmed to perform the desired operations on the input signal. It may also be a hardwired digital processor
configured to perform a specified set of operations on the input signal. The desired processed analog output
signal can be obtained using D/A converter.
Advantages of Digital Signal Processing
(i) A digital programmable system allows flexibility in reconfiguring the digital signal processing operations
simply by changing the program. However reconfiguration of an analog system usually implies a redesign of
the hardware followed by testing and verification to see that it operates properly.
(ii) Accuracy considerations also play an important role in determining the form of the signal processor.
Tolerances in analog circuit components make it extremely difficult for the system designer to control the

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accuracy of an analog signal processing system. On the other hand, a digital system provides much better
control of accuracy requirements.
(iii) Digital signals are easily stored on magnetic media (tape or disk) without deterioration or loss of signal
fidelity. As a consequence, the signals become transportable and can be processed off-line in a remote
laboratory.
(iv)The digital signal processing method also allows for the implementation of more sophisticated signal
processing algorithms. However it is usually very difficult to perform precise mathematical operations on
signals in analog form but these same operations can be routinely implemented on a digital computer using
software.
(v) Generally digital implementation of the signal processing system is cheaper than its analog counterpart. The
lower cost may be due to the fact that the digital hardware is cheaper, or perhaps it is a result of the flexibility
for modifications provided by the digital implementation.
Applications
The application of digital signal processing techniques in speech processing and signal transmission on
telephone channels, in image processing and transmission, in seismology and geophysics, in oil exploration, in
the detection of nuclear explosions, in the processing of signals received from outer space, and in a vast variety
of other applications.
Classification of Signals
Multi-Channel Signal and Multi-Dimensional Signal
Multi-Channel Signal is generated by multiple sources or multiple sensors and is the vector sum of signals from
all sources. Ex- ECG signal
x1 t
Mathematically x t = x2 t
x3 (t)
Multi-Dimensional signal
If the signal is a function of a single independent variable, the signal is called a one-dimensional signal. On the
other hand, a signal is called M-dimensional if its value is a function of M independent variables.
Ex- A black and white picture is a function of horizontal and vertical dimensions and its intensity is a function
of time. Mathematically written as P(x,y,t)
Deterministic and Random Signals
A Deterministic signal exhibits no uncertainty of values at any given instant of time and its value can be
accurately predicted by a mathematical equation. Example x(t) = 10 sin200t
A Random signal is characterized by uncertainty before its actual occurrence. The signal takes different values
at each instant of time for which the signal value is defined.
Ex- The Noise signal, The EMI signal, The seismic signal etc

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Note – The mathematical analysis of Random signal uses theory of probability and Stochastic processes.
Continuous Time (CT) and Discrete Time (DT) signals
A signal x(t) is said to be continuous if it is defined for all values of time t. A continuous time signal is an
analog signal. Ex - x(t) = 10 sin1000t
CT signals arise naturally when a physical phenomena (heart beat, acoustic pressure) is converted to an
electrical quantity using an appropriate transducer. Ex – Ac power, ECG waveform etc
Discrete Time (DT) signal x(n) is defined at discrete instants of time index n. DT signals are obtained by
sampling CT signals at regular intervals. Ex- Share Market Index, temperature variation recorded hourly basis.
x(n) = [ 1, 0, -2, 6, 1]
Sampling the CT signals at time t = nT yields a sample with a value x(nT)
x(n) = x(nT) = x(t)|t = nT where n = +0, +1, +2, …… and T is known as the sampling period / interval.

Digital Signal – A signal

quantized in amplitude and
discrtetized in time is
known as Digital signal

Discrete Time signals are further classified into

(i) Periodic and Aperiodic signals (ii) Even(symmetric) and Odd (Anti-symmetric) Signals
(iii) Energy and Power signals
Periodic and Non-periodic Signals
A DT signal is said to be periodic if x(n) = x(n + N) for all n; where N is the fundamental period and is given
2πk
by N = samples and  = fundamental angular frequency. Ex - x(n) = (–1)n for all n


A DT signal is non periodic if x(n)  x(n + N) for all n

Corollary – If x1(n) and x2(n) are two periodic signals with periods N1 and N2 respectively, the resultant sum
signal x(n) = x1(n) + x2(n) is periodic if and only if their periods can be expressed as a rational number and the
fundamental period of the resulting signal N = LCM(N1, N2)
x1(n) = x1(n +mN1) and x2(n) = x2(n +kN2)
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N1 k
= = rational number and N = LCM of N1 and N2
N2 m
1. Determine which of the following sinusoids are periodic and compute their fundamental period.
30𝑛 62𝑛
(a) cos 0.01πn (b) cos 𝜋 105 (c) cos(3n) (d) sin3n (e) sin 𝜋 10
2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘
Solution (a) x(n) = cos 0.01πn = cos (N)  𝑁 = = 0.01π = [200k]k=1 = 200 samples

Since N is an integer, the given signal is periodic.

30𝑛 2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘

(b) x n = cos 𝜋 105 = cos (N)  𝑁 = = 30 = [7k]k=1 = 7 samples
 𝜋
105
Since N is an integer, the given signal is periodic

2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘
(c) x(n) = cos(3n) = cos (N)  𝑁 =  = 3 = [2]k=1 = 2 samples
Since N is an integer, the given signal is periodic

2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘
(d) x(n) = sin(3n) = cos (N)  𝑁 = = = Not an integer
 3 𝑘=1
Since N is an not an integer, the given signal is not periodic in nature

62𝑛 2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘 10𝑘

e x n = sin 𝜋 = cos (N)  𝑁 = = 62 = = 10 samples
10  𝜋 31 𝑘=31
10
Since N is an integer, the given signal is periodic.

Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic. In case a signal is periodic, specify its
fundamental period.
(a) x(n) = 3 cos(5n + π/6)
𝜋 π π
Solution – x(n) = cos 5𝑛 + 6 = cos⁡
(5n) cos − sin⁡
(5n) sin = x1(n) + x2(n)
6 6
2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘
x1(n) = cos(5n) = cos (N)  𝑁 = = = Not an integer
 5 𝑘=1
2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘
x2(n) = sin(5n) = sin (N)  𝑁 = = = Not an integer
 5 𝑘=1
The given signal is not periodic
𝐧
n 𝑛 n n
(b) 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝟐𝐞𝐣 −𝛑
𝟔 = 2[cos − π + jsin −𝜋 = −2 cos + 𝑗sin = x1 n + x2 (n)
6 6 6 6
n 2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘
x1(n) = cos = cos (N)  𝑁 = = = Not an integer
6  1/6 𝑘=1
2𝜋𝑘 2𝜋𝑘
x2(n) = sin(n/6) = sin (N)  𝑁 = = = Not an integer
 1/6 𝑘=1
The given signal is not periodic

𝐧 𝛑𝐧
𝐜 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐜𝐨𝐬
𝟖 𝟖
n πn
cos is non-periodic; cos is periodic; Their product is non-periodic.
8 8
𝛑𝐧 𝛑𝐧 𝛑𝐧 𝛑
(d) 𝒙 𝒏 = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 + 𝟑𝐜𝐨𝐬 +𝟑
𝟐 𝟖 𝟒
πn πn πn π
cos is periodic with period 4; sin is periodic with period 16 and 3cos + 3 is also periodic with
2 8 4

period 8 and the given signal is periodic with period N = LCM(4, 16, 8) = 16 samples

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(e) x(n) = sin(2n) + cos(2n)

sin 2πn is periodic with period 2; cos 2πn is periodic with period 2; the given signal is sum of the two
signals and is periodic with period N = LCM(2,2) = 2 samples
πn πn 1 πn πn πn πn 1 8πn 2πn
(f) 𝑥 𝑛 = sin cos = 2 sin + + sin − = 2 sin + sin
3 5 3 5 3 5 15 15
8πn 2πn
sin is periodic with period 15 and sin is periodic with period 15 and the given signal is sum of the
15 15

two signals and is periodic with period N = LCM(15,15) = 15 samples

𝟏; 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
(g) x(n) = (–1)n =
−𝟏 ; 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 𝒐𝒅𝒅
By inspection, x(n) is a periodic sequence with period 2 samples
𝟐 𝟏; 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏
(g) x(n) = (−𝟏)𝒏 =
−𝟏 ; 𝒇𝒐𝒓 𝒏 𝒐𝒅𝒅
By inspection, x(n) is a periodic sequence with period 2 samples

Even and Odd signals

A DT signal x(n) is said to be even if it satisfies the condition and x(n) = x(–n ) for all n
A DT signal x(n) is said to be odd it satisfies the condition x(–n ) =- – x(n ) for all n

Decomposition of DT signal
A DT signal x(n) can be decomposed into sum of two signals x e(n) and xo(n) where xe(n) is the even part of
x(n) and xo(n) is the odd component of x(n).
x(n) = xe(n) + xo(n) ------(a) and x(–n) = xe(–n) + xo(–n) = xe(n) – xo(n) ------ (b)

x n +x −n x n − x(−n)
From (a) and (b)  xe n = and xo (n) =
2 2

Energy and Power Signals

Energy Signal - A DT signal x(n) is called an energy signal if it satisfies the condition that the total energy of
the signal is finite. (0  E  ) and is expressed mathematically as
∞
All non periodic signals are energy signals
E= |x n |2 (Joules) and the power of an energy signal is zero.
n= −∞

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Power Signal - A DT signal x(n) is called a Power signal if it satisfies the condition that the average power of
the signal is finite. (0  P  ) and is expressed mathematically as
N All periodic signals are power signals and
1 the energy of a power signal is infinite.
P = lim |x n |2 (Watts)
N →∞ 2N + 1
n= −N
For a periodic signal with fundamental period N, the Average Power is given by
N−1
1
P= |x n |2 (Watts)
N
n= 0

The Energy of signal x(n) defined over a finite is given by

N N
1 E E
E= |x n |2 and Power of this signal P = lim |x n |2 = lim = =0
N →∞ 2N + 1 N →∞ 2N + 1 ∞
n= −N n= −N
The normalized energy of a power signal x(n) can be expressed as
∞ N
2
1 2
E= |x n | = lim N x n = lim N P = ∞
N →∞ N N →∞
n= −∞ n= 0

1) Show that the product of two even signals or two odd signals is an even signal and the product of even
and odd signal is an odd signal.
Solution - Let the two signals be x1(n) and x2(n) such that x(n) = x1(n) . x2(n)
(a) When both signals are even (b) When both the signals are odd
x( –n) = x1( –n) . x2( –n) = x1(n) . x2(n) = x(n) x( –n) = x1( –n) . x2( –n) = [–x1(n)].[–x2(n)] = x(n)
(c) Let x1(n) be even signal and x2(n) be an odd signal
x( –n) = x1( –n) . x2( –n) = [x1(n)].[–x2(n)] = –x(n) ---(odd signal)
k k

𝟐) 𝐈𝐟 𝐱(𝐧) 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐧 𝐞𝐯𝐞𝐧 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐥 , 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐰 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 x(n) = x 0 + 2 x(n)

n= −k n= 1
Solution - For an even signal x(–n) = x(n)
k −1 k 1 k

LHS = x(n) = x(n) + x 0 + x(n) = x(−n) + x 0 + x(n)

n= −k n= −k n= 1 n= k n= 1
k 1 k k

x(n) = x(n) + x 0 + x(n) = x 0 + 2 x(n) − − − −RHS

n= −k n= k n= 1 n= 1
k

𝟑) 𝐈𝐟 𝐱 𝐧 𝐢𝐬 𝐚𝐧 𝐨𝐝𝐝 𝐬𝐢𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐥 𝐰𝐢𝐭𝐡 𝐱 𝟎 = 𝟎, 𝐬𝐡𝐨𝐰 𝐭𝐡𝐚𝐭 x(n) = 0

n= −k
Solution – For an odd signal x(–n) = –x(n)
k −1 k 1 k

LHS = x(n) = x(n) + x 0 + x(n) = x(−n) + x 0 + x(n)

n= −k n= −k n= 1 n= k n= 1
k 1 k

x(n) = −x(n) + x 0 + x(n) = 0 + 0 = 0 − − − −RHS

n= −k n= k n= 1

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3) Show that the energy (power) of a real-valued energy (power) signal is equal to the sum of the energies
(powers) of its even and odd components.
Solution- Any arbitrary signal x(n) can be expressed as x(n) = xe(n) + xo(n)
∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

|x n |2 = |xe n + xo n |2 = |xe n |2 + |xo n |2 + 2|xe n xo n |

n= −∞ n= −∞ n= −∞ n= −∞ n= −∞

The third term is the product of even and odd signal which odd and summation of odd signal is zero. Hence
P = Pe + PO or E = Ee + EO
4) Classify the following signals according to whether they are (1) one- or multi-dimensional; (2) Single
or Multichannel, (3) Continuous time or Discrete time, and (4) Analog or Digital (in amplitude). Give a
brief explanation.
(a) Closing prices of utility stocks on the New One dimensional Multi Discrete Digital
York Stock Exchange Channel
(b) A color movie. Multi- Single Continuous Analog
dimensional Channel
(c) Position of the steering wheel of a car in One dimensional Single Continuous Analog
motion relative to car’s reference frame. Channel
(d) Position of the steering wheel of a car in One dimensional Single Continuous Analog
motion relative to ground reference frame. Channel
(e) Weight and height measurements of a child One dimensional Multi Discrete Digital
taken every month Channel

Check whether the following signals are Energy signals or Power signals and also find the associated
energy or power of the signal.
𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧 ; −𝟒 ≤ 𝐧 ≤ 𝟒
(a) x(n) =
𝟎; 𝐎𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞
Soln - The given signal is defined for a finite period and not periodic. Hence it is an Energy signal.
∞ 4 4 4

E= 2
|x n | = |cos n | =2 n 2
[ −1 ] = −1 2n
= 4 − −4 + 1 = 9 Joules
n= −∞ n= −4 n= −4 n= −4

𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝐧 ; 𝐧  𝟎
(b) x(n) =𝒙 𝒏 =
𝟎; 𝐎𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞
Soln - The given signal is defined for an infinite period for all n  0 and is periodic. Hence it is a Power signal.
Cos(n) = (– 1)n = [ 1, –1, 1, –1, 1, –1, ……..] The signal repeats for every 2 samples hence N = 2
For periodic signals with period N, the power associated with the signal is given by
N−1 2−1 1
1 1 1
P= 2
|x n | = |cos n | =2
−1 2n
= 1 + 1 = 1 Watt
N 2 2
n= 0 n= 0 n= 0

𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝐧 ; −𝟒 ≤ 𝐧 ≤ 𝟒
(c) x(n) =
𝟎; 𝐎𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞
Soln- By inspection the signal has all samples zero (sin() = for all n) and is defined for a finite period and not
periodic. Also its energy is also zero. Hence the given signal is not a power or energy signal [i,e zero signal]
(d) Determine the power and energy of the unit step sequence.
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x(n) = u(n)
The average power associated with the signal is given by
N N
1 2
1 1 1 1 + 1/N 1
P = lim |x n | = lim |1|2 = lim N+1 = = W
N →∞ 2N + 1 N →∞ 2N + 1 N →∞ 2N + 1 2 1 + 1/2N 2
n= −N n= 0

The energy associated with the signal is

∞ ∞
2
E= |x n | = |1|2 = ∞
n= −∞ n= 0

Hence the given signal unit step sequence is a Power signal

(e) Determine the power and energy of x(n) = n u(n)
The average power associated with the signal is given by
N N
1 2
1
P = lim |x n | = lim |n|2 |1|2 = ∞
N →∞ 2N + 1 N →∞ 2N + 1
n= −N n= 0

The energy associated with the signal is

∞ ∞
2
E= |x n | = |n|2 |1|2 = ∞
n= −∞ n= 0

Hence the given signal is not a power nor an energy signal.

(f) x(n) = (1/3)n u(n)
The given signal an energy signal and is converging (exponentially decaying) signal and has finite energy
∞ ∞ 2n ∞ n
2
1 2
1 1 9
E= x n = 1 = = = Joules
3 9 1 8
n= −∞ n= 0 n= 0 1−
9
(j) 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝟐𝐞𝐣 𝟐𝐧𝛑

ej 2nπ
= cos 2nπ + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 2nπ = 1+0 =1
The average power associated with the signal is given by
N N
1 2
1 1
P = lim |x n | = lim |2|2 |1|2 = lim 4 N − N + 1 = 4W
N →∞ 2N + 1 N →∞ 2N + 1 N →∞ 2N + 1
n= −N n= −N
𝒏𝝅 𝝅
𝒋 +
(i) 𝒙 𝒏 = 𝒆 𝟐 𝟔

j
nπ π
+ nπ π nπ π
x n = e 2 6 = cos + + j sin + = cos n +  + j sin n + 
2 6 2 6
The given signal is periodic with period N = 2(2) = 4 samples. Using the concept of RMS value of the signal, the average
1 2 1 2
power is given by Pav = P = 2
+ 2
= 1 Watt

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Representation of Discrete Time Signals

1) Graphical Representation
A discrete-time signal x(n) is a function of an independent
variable n (an integer). It is graphically represented
A discrete-time signal is defined for every integer value n for [-
 < n < ]. x(n) as the "nth sample" of the signal and is obtained from sampling an analog signal x(t),
x(n) = x(nT), where T is the sampling period
2) Functional representation 3) Tabular representation
1, for n = 1,3
x(n) = 4, for n = 2
0, Elsewhere
4) Sequence representation
An infinite-duration signal or sequence with the time origin (n = 0) indicated by the symbol ↑ is represented as
x(n) = {. . . 0,0,1, 4, 1, 0, 0, . . .}
↑
A sequence x(n), which is zero for n < 0, can be represented as x(n) = {1, 4, 1, 0, 0, . . .}
A finite duration sequence can be represented as x(n) = {-2,0,3,1,1, 4, 1, 0} ---- Eight Point sequence
A finite-duration sequence that satisfies the condition x(n) = 0 for n < 0 can be represented as
x(n) = {1,1, 4, 1, 0} ------ 5 Point sequence
↑
Elementary Discrete Time Signals
Unit Sample Sequence Unit Sep function Unit Ramp Signal
1; 𝑛 = 0 1; 𝑛  0 𝑛; 𝑛  0
(n) = u(n) = ur(n) =
0; 𝑛  0 0; 𝑛  0 0; 𝑛  0

Exponential signal x(n) = an for all n ……… (with a real, x(n) is also real)
.

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When the parameter a is complex valued, it can be expressed as

a ≡ rejθ where r and θ are the parameters.
n jθn
x(n) = r e = rn(cos θn + j sin θn)
The real part xR(n) ≡ rn cos θn the imaginary part xI(n) ≡ rn sin θn

Determine the odd and even components of (a) x(n) = [ –2, 1, 2, –1, 3]
x(0) = 2; x(1) = –1; x(–1) = 1; x(2) = 3 and x(–2) = –2
x 1 + x(−1) 1 − 1 x 2 + x(−2) 3 − 2
xe 0 = 2; xe 1 = = = 0; xe 2 = = = 0.5
2 2 2 2
x 1 − x(−1) −1 − 1 x 2 − x(−2) 3 + 2
x0 0 = 0; xo 1 = = = −1; x0 2 = = = 2.5
2 2 2 2
xe(n) = [ 0.5, 0, 2, 0, 0.5] and x(n) = [ –2.5, –1, 0, –1, 2.5]
(b) x(n) = n2(0.5)n – 2
x(– n) = (– n) 2(0.5) –n – 2
2 n−2 2 −n−2
x n + x −n n 0.5 + −n 0.5
xe n = = = n 2 [ 0.5 n−3
+ 0.5 −n−3
]
2 2
x n − x(−n) n 2 (0.5)n−2 − −n 2 (0.5)−n−2
x0 n = = = n 2 [ 0.5 n−3
− 0.5 −n−3
]
2 2
(c) x(n) = n u(n)
x(n) = n u(n) and x(– n) = – n u(– n)
αn
; n>0
x n + x −n αn u n + α−n u −n 2
xe n = = = 1; n = 0
2 2 α−n
; n<0
2
αn
; n>0
2
x n +x −n α n u n −α −n u −n αn
x0 n = = = 0; n = 0 = sgn(n)
2 2 2
α −n
; n<0
2

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(d) x(n) = u(n)

x(n) = u(n) and x(– n) = u(– n)
1
x n +x −n u n +u −n ; n0 1
xe n = = = 2 = 2 + δ(n)
2 2
1; n = 0
1
; n>0
x n + x −n u n − u −n 2 1
x0 n = = = 0; n = 0 = sgn(n)
2 2 1 2
− ; n<0
2

Basic Operations on Signals

(1) Amplitude Scaling - If x(n) is a DT signal, the amplitude scaled version of x(n) is given by
y(n) = C x(n) ----- −∞ < n < ∞ C is known as amplitude scaling factor
Ex - y(n) = 5 x(n)
Other examples are Electronic amplifier Vo = AV vin, Voltage across resistor VO = R Iin

(2) Addition of Two Signals

The sum of two signals x1(n) and x2(n) is a signal y(n), whose value at any instant is equal to the sum of the
values of these two signals at that instant. y(n) = x1(n) + x2(n) −∞ < n < ∞
Ex- Audio mixer

(3) Multiplication of Two Signals

The product of two signals is similarly defined on a sample-to-sample basis as
y(n) = x1(n) . x2(n) --------- −∞ < n < ∞ Ex- Amplitude Modulation

Simple Manipulations of Discrete-Time Signals

Time Scaling – If x(n) is DT signal, its time scaled version is given by y(n) = x(kn) where k is the time scaling
factor. If k > 1, then the Signal compression occurs and for (0 < k < 1) signal expansion occurs.
Let x(n) = [ 1, 2, 4, 0, 1 ] ----- 5 samples

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Time Shifting - Transformation of the independent variable (time)

A signal x(n) may be shifted in time by replacing the independent variable n by n − k,
y(n) = x(n – k) where k is an integer.
If k is a positive integer, then shift the signal right by k samples *the time shift results in a delay of the signal
by k units of time).If k is a negative integer, then shift the signal left by k samples (the time shift results in an
advance of the signal by |k| units in time)

Time Reversal or Folding or Reflection

Replacing the independent variable n by −n results in time reversal operation or a reflection of the signal about
the time origin n = 0. This operation is also known as Folding about origin n = 0.

𝐧
𝟏 + 𝟑 ; −𝟑 ≤ 𝐧 ≤ −𝟏
(1) A discrete-time signal x(n) is defined as 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝟏; 𝟎 ≤ 𝐧 ≤ 𝟑
𝟎; 𝐄𝐥𝐬𝐞 𝐰𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞
(a) Determine its values and sketch the signal x(n). Sketch the signals that result if we: (b) First fold x(n)
and then delay the resulting signal by four samples. (c) First delay x(n) by four samples and then fold the
resulting signal. (d) Can you express the signal x(n) in terms of signals δ(n) and u(n)?

x(n) = [0, 1/3, 2/3, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0 …]

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(b) The resulting signal is y(n) = x( – n +4) = [0, 1, 1, 1, 1, (2/3), (1/3), 0, 0…. ]
(c) The resulting signal is y(n) = x( – n – 4) = [….0, 1, 1, 1, 1, (2/3), (1/3), 0, 0 ]

(d) x(n) = (1/3) (n+2) + (2/3) (n+1) + (n) + (n – 1) + (n – 2) + (n – 3)
x(n) = (1/3) (n+2) + (2/3) (n+1) + u(n) – u(n – 4)

(2) A discrete-time signal x(n) is shown in Fig. Sketch and

label carefully each of (a) x(n − 2) (b) x(4 − n) (c) x(n + 2)
(d) x(n)u(2 − n) (e) x(n − 1)δ(n − 3) (f) x(n2) (g) even part of
x(n) (h) odd part of x(n)
Solution – Given x(n) = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0]
(a) Shift x(n) 2 samples to left to get x(n – 2) Shift x(n) 2 samples to right to get x(n +2)
x(n – 2) = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0] x(n+2) = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0]

First fold the signal x(n) to get x(–n) and shift x(–n) 4 OR Shift x(n) 4 samples to the right first and fold the
samples to the Left. shifted signal to get x(4– n)
x(–n) = [0, 0, 0.5, 0.5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0] x(n + 4) = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0]
x(4 – n) = [0, 0, 0.5, 0.5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0] x(4– n) = [0, 0, 0.5, 0.5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0]

x(n) u(2 – n)
First shift u(n) 2 samples to the right and fold the resulting signal to get u(2 – n)
u(n) = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, ……] u(n + 2) = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, ……] u(2 – n) = [. . . 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1]
Multiply x(n) and u(2 – n) sample by sample to get the product signal
x(n) u(2 – n) = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0] [. . . 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1] = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0]
x(n – 1)(n -3)
x(n – 1) = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0] (n) =[0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0] (n –3) =[0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
x(n – 1)(n -3) = [0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0] [ 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0] = [ 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0]
x(n2) =[x(–3)2, x(–2)2, x(–1)2, x(0)2, x(1)2, x(2)2, x(3)2, x(4)2, x(5)2, x(6)2]
x(n2) = [x(9), x(4), x(1), x(0), x(1), x(4), x(9), x(16), x(25), x(36)] = [0, 0.5, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0, 0, 0, 0 ]
x(n) = [0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.5, 0, 0] x(–n) = [0, 0, 0.5, 0.5, 1, 1, 1, 1, 0, 0]
x(n) 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0.5 0.5 0 0
x(–n) 0 0 0.5 0.5 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0

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x n + x(−n) 0 0 0.25 0.25 0.5 1 1 0.5 0.25 0.25 0 0 0

𝐱𝐞 𝐧 =
2
x n − x(−n) 0 0 – 0.25 – 0.25 – 0.5 0 0 0 0.5 0.25 0.25 0 0
𝐱𝐞 𝐧 =
2
xe(n) = [ 0, 0, 0.25, 0.25, 0.5, 1, 1, 1, 0.5, 0.25, 0.25, 0, 0 ]
xo(n) = [0, 0, – 0.25, – 0.25, – 0.5, 0, 0, 0.5, 0.25, 0.25, 0, 0]

Classification of Discrete-Time Systems [Properties or Characteristics of Discrete Time Systems]

The Important Properties of Discrete Time systems are
(a) Linearity (b) Time Invariance (c) Memory (d) Causality and (e) Stability.
Based on these properties, discrete time systems are classified into
(a) Linear / Non-Linear systems (b) Time invariant / Time variant systems (c) Static / Dynamic systems
(d) Causal / non-causal systems and (e) Stable / Unstable systems
Static and Dynamic Systems.
Static or Memoryless system - A discrete-time system is called Static or Memory-less if its output at any
instant n depends only on the present value of the input sample, but not on past or future samples of the input.
Ex- The Current through the resistor.
The input and output are related as y(n) = T[x(n), n]
Ex- (a) y(n) = a x(n); (b) y(n) = n x(n) + b x3(n)
Dynamic system or Memory system - A discrete time system is said to be Dynamic or posses memory, if the
output of a system at time n is completely determined by the past or future values of the input samples (along
with the present value). Ex- Voltage across the capacitor.
∞

Ex − a y n = x n + 0.5x n − 1 + 3x n + 1 (b) y n = x(n − k)

k=0

Time-Invariant and Time-Variant Systems

Time-Invariant System - A System is called Time-Invariant if its input-output characteristics do not change
with time. In other words, a time shift in the input signal produces an identical time shift in the output.
Ex- Response of the resistor.
The input output relation is described by the equation y(n -k) = T[x(n -k)]
Time Variant System - A system is called time variant if its input-output characteristics change with time. In
other words, a time shift in the input signal does not produce an identical time shift in the output.
Ex- Rainfall per month.
The input output relation is described by the equation y(n -k)  T[x(n -k)]
Examples - Check whether the following systems are Time Invariant or not
(a) y(n) = x(n) – x(n – 1)
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = x(n – k) – x( n – k -1) ------(a)

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Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = x(n – k) – x( n – k -1) ------(b)

From equations (a) and (b) y(n,k) = y(n – k) The system is a time invariant system
(b) y(n) = n x(n)
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = n x(n – k) ------(a)
Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = ( n – 1) x(n – k) ------(b)
From equations (a) and (b) y(n,k)  y(n – k) The system is not a time invariant system
Note – A time dependent variable n makes the system time variant.
(c) y(n) = x(–n)
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = n x(–n – k) ------(a)
Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = x((–n – k)) = x(–n + k) ------(b)
From equations (a) and (b) y(n,k)  y(n – k) The system is not a time invariant system
(d) y(n) = x(n) cos(n)
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = x(n – k) cos[n] ------(a)
Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = (x(n – k) cos[(n – k)] ------(b)
From equations (a) and (b) y(n,k)  y(n – k) The system is not a time invariant system
Linear and Non-Linear Systems
A system is said to be linear if it satisfies the principle of superposition. If the system produces a weighted sum
of outputs (responses) to corresponding weighted sum of inputs, then the system is said to be linear.
For DT system, if x1(n)  y1(n) and x2(n)  y2(n) the required condition for linearity is that
[ax1(n) + bx2(n)] = [ay1(n) + by2(n)] Ex- Current through the resistor.
If the weighted sum of inputs does not produce equivalent weighted sum of outputs then the system is
non-linear and the condition is [ax1(n) + bx2(n)]  [ay1(n) + by2(n)]

Examples - Check whether the following systems are linear or not

(a) y(n) = n x(n)
y1(n) = n x1(n) and y2(n) = n x2(n)
x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] so that y3(n) = n x3(n) = n[x1(n) + x2(n)] ----- (a)
y1(n) + y2(n) = n[x1(n) + x2(n)] ------ (b)
Equations (a) and (b) are equivalent Hence the given system is linear.
(b) y(n) = x(n2)
y1(n) = x1(n2) and y2(n) = x2(n2)
x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] so that y3(n) = x3(n2) = [x1(n2) + x2(n2)] ----- (a)
y1(n) + y2(n) = [x1(n2) + x2(n2)] ------ (b)
Equations (a) and (b) are equivalent Hence the given system is linear.
(c) y(n) = x2(n)
y1(n) = x21(n) and y2(n) = x22(n)
x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] so that y3(n) = x3(n2) = [x1(n) + x2(n)]2 ----- (a)
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y1(n) + y2(n) = [x1(n2) + x2(n2)]------ (b)

Equations (a) and (b) are not equivalent Hence the given system is non-linear.
(d) y(n) = Ax(n) + B
y1(n) = Ax1(n) + B and y2(n) = Ax2(n) + B
x3(n) = x1(n) + x2(n) so that y3(n) = Ax3(n) + B = A[x1(n) + x2(n)] + B ----- (a)
y1(n) + y2(n) = [Ax1(n) + Ax2(n) + 2B ]------ (b)
Equations (a) and (b) are not equivalent Hence the given system is non-linear.
Note – Due to the presence of constant term B in input makes the system non-linear.
(e) y(n) = ex(n)
y1(n) = ex1(n) and y2(n) = ex2(n)
x3(n) = x1(n) + x2(n) so that y3(n) = ex3(n) = e[x1(n)+ x2(n)] = ex1(n). e x2(n) ---------------(a)
[y1(n)+ y2(n)] = ex1(n) + ex2(n) --------------------(b)
Equations (a) and (b) are not equivalent Hence the given system is non-linear.
Note - if x(n) = 0; y(0) = 1, hence the system is not linear
Causal and Non – Causal Systems
A system is said to be causal if its output depends upon the past or present value of the input only.
y(k) = f[x(n) ; n  k] Ex – Voltage across the capacitor
The output of the non- causal system depends upon one or more future values of the input.
All Static( Memory less) systems are Causal in nature
Examples - Check whether the following systems are causal anti-causal
(a) y(n) = x(n) + x(n – 1)
y(0) = x(0) + x(–1) ----- output depends on past and present value of input, hence it is a causal system.
(b) y(n) = ax(n)
y(0) = ax(0) ---- output depends on present value of input, hence it is a causal system.
(c) y(n) = x(n2)
y(2) = x(22) = x(4) ---- output depends on future value of input, hence it is a non- causal system.
(d) y(n) = x(n) + 3 x(n – 1) + 4x(n + 4)
y(0) = x(0) + 3 x(– 1) + 4x(4) ---- output depends on future value of input, hence it is a non- causal system.
(e) y(n) = x(– n)
y(– 1) = x(–(–1)) = x(1) ---- output depends on future value of input, hence it is a non- causal system
(f) y(n) = x(n) + 3 u(n + 1)
y(0) = x(0) + 3 u(1) ---- output depends on present and past value of input, hence it is a causal system.
1; 𝑛 ≥ −1
𝑁𝑜𝑡𝑒 𝑢 𝑛+1 = 𝑢 1 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑠𝑡 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡
0; 𝑛 < 1
(g) y(n) = Max(x(n), x(n – 1)]

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Let x(n) = [1,2,3] and x(–1) = 1 x(0) = 2 and x(1) = 3

y(0) = Max(x(0),x(–1)] = Max[2,1] = 2 -- o/p depends on present value of input, hence it is a causal system.
Stable and Unstable Systems. Stability is an important property that must be considered in any practical
application of a system. Unstable systems usually exhibit erratic and extreme behavior and cause overflow in
any practical implementation.
Stable System - An arbitrary relaxed system is said to be bounded input–bounded output (BIBO) stable if and
only if every bounded input produces a bounded output.
The condition that the input sequence x(n) and the output sequence y(n) are bounded can be expressed as
|x(n)| ≤ Mx < ∞, |y(n)| ≤ My < ∞ for all n. where Mx and My are certain finite values

In an Unstable system, for some bounded input sequence x(n), the output is unbounded (infinite)

Ex- Check whether the system y(n) = y2(n – 1) + x(n) is stable or not
Let the input be bounded as x(n) = C(n) where C is a constant and y(–1) = 0
y(0) = y2(– 1) + x(0) = C
y(1) = y2(0) + x(1) = C2 and y(n) = C2n
The output is unbounded for |C| >1 and the system is unstable.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Examine the following systems with respect to their properties
(a) y(n) = cos[x(n)]
Memory/memoryless
y(0) = cos[x(0)] The given system is Static system as output depends on present value of input.
Linearity Property
y1(n) = cos[x1(n)] and y2(n) = cos[x2(n)] so that [y1(n) + y2(n)]= cos[x1(n)] + cos[x2(n)] -----(a)
Let x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] so that y3(n) = cos[x3(n)] = cos [x1(n)+ x2(n)] --------------(b)
Equation (a)  Equation (b) (Since cos(A+B)  cosA + cosB), the system is non-linear.
Time Invariance
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = cos[x(n – k)] ------(a)
Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = cos [x(n – k) ----(b)
y(n,k) = y(n – k) , the given system is time invariant
Causality
y(0) = cos[x(0)] The given system is a causal system as output depends on present value of input.
Stability – For bounded input, the output is bounded, hence the system is BIBO stable. [Note : –1 cos(x)  1]

Conclusion – The given system is a Non – linear, Time invariant, stable, causal and static system.
(b) y(n) = |x(n)|
Memory/memoryless
y(0) = [x(0)] The given system is Static system as output depends on present value of input.
Linearity Property
Let x1(n) = 1 and x2(n) = – 3  y1(n) = |x1(n)|= 1 and y2(n) = |x2(n)| = |– 3| =3
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[y1(n) + y2(n)]= 1+3= 4 -----(a)

Let x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] = [1 – 3 ] = –2 so that y3(n) = |x3(n)| = |–2 | = 2 --------------(b)
Equation (a)  Equation (b), the system is non-linear.
Time Invariance
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = |x(n – k)| ------(a)
Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = |x(n – k)| ----(b)
y(n,k) = y(n – k) , the given system is time invariant
Causality
y(0) = |x(0)| The given system is a causal system as output depends on present value of input.
Stability – For bounded input, the output is bounded, hence the system is BIBO stable.
Conclusion – The given system is a Non – linear, Time invariant, stable, causal and static system
(c) y(n) = x(– n + k)
Memory/memoryless
y(0) = [x(k)] The given system is Dynamic system as output depends on future/past value of input.
Linearity Property
Let y1(n) = x1(– n + k) and y2(n) = x2(– n + k) [y1(n) + y2(n)] = x1(– n + k) + x2(– n + k) -----(a)
Let x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] so that y3(n) = x3(– n +k) = x1(– n + k) + x2(– n + k) --------------(b)
Equation (a) = Equation (b), the system is Linear.
Time Invariance
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = x(– (n – k)+ k ) = x(–n+2k) ------(a)
Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = x(– (n – k)+ k ) = x(–n+2k) ----(b)
y(n,k) = y(n – k) , the given system is time invariant
Causality
y(–1 ) = x(1+k) The given system is a non-causal system as output depends on future value of input.
Stability – For bounded input, the output is bounded, hence the system is BIBO stable.
Conclusion – The given system is a Non – linear, Time invariant, stable, non-causal and Dynamic system
(d) y(n) = x(n) u(n)
Memory/Memoryless
y(0) = x(0) u(0) -- The given system is a Static system as output depends on present value of input.
Linearity Property
Let y1(n) = x1(n) u(n) and y2(n) = x2(n) u(n) [y1(n) + y2(n)] = [x1(n) + x1(n) ]u(n) -----(a)
Let x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] so that y3(n) = x3(n)u(n) = [x1(n) + x1(n) ]u(n) --------------(b)
Equation (a) = Equation (b), the system is Linear.
Time Invariance ( Due to the presence of u(n), For n  0)

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Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = x((n – k) ------(a)

Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = x(n – k) ----(b)
y(n,k) = y(n – k) , the given system is time invariant
Causality
For n  0; y(0) = x(0) The given system is a causal system as output depends on present value of input.
Stability – For bounded input, the output is bounded, hence the system is BIBO stable.
Conclusion – The given system is a Linear, Time invariant, stable, causal and static system.
𝑥 𝑛 ; 𝑖𝑓 𝑥 𝑛 ≥ 0
(e) y(n) =
0; 𝑖𝑓 𝑥(𝑛) < 0
Memory/Memoryless
y(0) = x(0) -- The given system is a Static system as output depends on present value of input.
Linearity Property
Let x1(n) = 1 and x2(n) = –1  y1(n) = x1(n) = 1 and y2(n) = x2(n) = –1
[y1(n) + y2(n)]= 1–1= 0 -----(a)
Let x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] so that y3(n) = x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] = [1+0] = 1 --------------(b) ( for x3(n)  0)

Equation (a)  Equation (b), the system is non-linear.

Time Invariance
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = x((n – k) ------(a)
Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = x(n – k) ----(b)
y(n,k) = y(n – k) , the given system is time invariant
Causality
For n  0; y(0) = x(0) The given system is a causal system as output depends on present value of input.
Stability – For bounded input, the output is bounded, hence the system is BIBO stable
Conclusion – The given system is a non -linear, Time invariant, stable, causal and Static system
(f) y(n) = Trun[x(n)], where Trun[x(n)] denotes the integer part of x(n), obtained by truncation.
Linearity
Let x1(n) = x2(n) = 0.6 so that y1(n) = Trun[x1(n)] = Trun[0.6] = 1 and y2(n) = Trun[x2(n)] = Trun[0.6] = 1
y1(n) + y2(n) = 2 ------(a)
Let x3(n) = x1(n) + x2(n) = [0.6 + 0.6] = 1.2 and y3(n) = Trun[x3(n)] = Trun[1.2] = 1 -----(b)
Eqn (a)  eqn (b) the given system is non-linear.
Conclusion – The given system is a non -linear, Time invariant, stable, causal and Static system
(g) y(n) = x(n) + n x(n+1)
Memory/Memoryless
y(1) = x(1) +x(2) -- The given system possess memory as output depends on future value of input.

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Linearity Property
y1(n) = x1(n) + n x1(n+1) and y2(n) = x2(n) + n x2(n+1)
[y1(n) + y2(n)] = [x1(n) + n x1(n+1) + x2(n) + n x2(n+1)] -----(a)
Let x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] so that y3(n) = x3(n) = [x1(n) + n x1(n+1) + x2(n) + n x2(n+1)] --------------(b)
Equation (a) = Equation (b), the system is linear.
Time Invariance
Delay the input by k units  y(n,k) = x1(n – k ) + n x1(n – k +1) ------(a)
Delay the output by k units  y(n – k) = x1(n – k ) + (n – k) x1(n – k +1) ----(b)
y(n,k)  y(n – k) , the given system is time variant
Causality
y(1) = x(1 ) + x(2) The given system is a non-causal system as output depends on future value of input.
Stability –
For bounded input, the output is not bounded due to the presence of term n, hence the system is not stable
Conclusion – The given system is a non -linear, Time variant, unstable, non-causal and Dynamic system
(h) y(n) = Round[x(n)], where Round[x(n)] denotes the integer part of x(n) obtained by rounding.
Linearity
Let x1(n) = x2(n) = 0.4 so that y1(n) = Round[x1(n)] = Round[0.4] = 0 = y2(n)
So that y1(n) + y2(n) = 2 ------(a)
Let x3(n) = x1(n) + x2(n) = [0.4 + 0.4] = 0.8 and y3(n) = Round[x3(n)] = Round[1.2] = 1 ---------(b)
Eqn (a)  eqn (b) the given system is non-linear.
Conclusion – The given system is a non -linear, Time invariant, stable, causal and Static system.
(i) y(n) = log[x(n)]
Linearity
y1(n) = log[x1(n)] and y2(n) = log[x2(n)] So that y1(n) + y2(n) = log[x1(n)] + log[x2(n)] ------(a)
Let x3(n) = [x1(n) + x2(n)] and y3(n) = log[x3(n)] = log[x1(n) + x2(n] -----(b)
Eqn (a)  eqn (b) the given system is non-linear.
Stability – Let x(0) = 0; then y(0) = log(0) = ; hence the system is unstable
Conclusion – The given system is a non -linear, Time invariant, unstable, causal and Static system.
∞

𝐣 𝐲 𝐧 = 𝐱(𝐧) 𝛅(𝐧 − 𝟐𝐤)

𝐤=−∞
∞

y n =x n δ n − 2k = x n δ n + x n δ n ∓ 2 + x n δ n ∓ 4 + … ..
k=−∞
Stability – let x(n) =u(n), the output becomes
n+1
0; n < −1
y n = u k = since y(n) → ∞ as n → ∞, the system is unstable.
n + 2; n ≥ −1
k=−∞

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Conclusion - The given system is Dynamic, linear, time invariant, non-causal and unstable in nature

Block Diagram Representation of Discrete Time Systems

The following basic building blocks are interconnected to form complete discrete time system.
Basic Building Blocks
Adder - An Adder adds two signal Constant Multiplier Signal Multiplier: It multiples two
sequences x1(n) and x2(n) to form another It represents applying a scale signal sequences x1(n) and x2(n) to
(the sum) sequence y(n) and the addition factor on the input x(n) and this form another (the sum) sequence y(n)
operation is memoryless operation is memoryless. and the operation is memoryless.

Unit Delay and Advance elements

The unit delay is a special system that simply delays the signal passing through it by
one sample. If the input signal is x(n), the output is x(n - 1).
y(n) = x(n – 1)
The unit advance is a special system that simply advances the signal passing through
it by one sample. If the input signal is x(n), the output is x(n + 1). y(n) = x(n +
1)
These basic building block requires memory

Represent the following discrete time systems using block diagrams

y(n) = (1/3)[x(n) + x( n – 1) +x( n + 1
y(n) = 0.25 y(n – 1) + 0.5 x(n) + 0.5x( n – 1)

Draw the system equation for the block diagram shown below

The system equation is y(n) = (1/3)x(n – 1) + (1/2) x(n – 2) – (1/2) x( n – 3)

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Analysis of Discrete LTI Systems - Convolution Sum

A LTI system can be represented by –
(a) In terms of Impulse response (b) In terms of difference equations (c) Using Block diagrams
Impulse Response
Impulse response is the output of the LTI system due impulse input applied at various values of n. The output
and input are related by y(n) = H[ x(n) ] where H[ . ] is the system operator.
If x(n) = (n), then y(n) = H[ x(n) ] = H[(n)] = h(n)
Where h(n) is known as Impulse response of the system.
Significance – Impulse response relates input – output; a complete characterization of any LTI system can be
determined from its impulse response representation.
Convolution Sum – If the input to a LTI system can be expressed as a weighted sum of time shifted impulses,
then the output is weighted sum of time shifted responses to each of the time shifted impulses. This weighted
superposition sum is known as Convolution sum for a DT – LTI system.
∞

Mathematically y(n) = x k h n − k = x(n) ∗ h(n)

k=−∞

Any discrete time signal can be expressed using impulse response as

x(n) = …..+ x(–2)(n+2) + x(–1)(n+1) + x(0)(n) + x(1)(n–1) + x(2)(n–2) +……. =
∞

x(n) = x k δ n−k
k=−∞

Let y(n) be the output response of the system with H[ . ] being the system operator and x(n) being the input.
∞ ∞ ∞

y n =Hx n =H x k δ n−k = x k H[δ n − k ] = x k h n − k = x(n) ∗ h(n)

k=−∞ k=−∞ k=−∞

where H[δ n − k ] is the response of the system to a time shifted impulse input (n–k) denoted by h(n – k).
Convolution sum involves – (a) Folding (b) Time shifting (c) Multiplication and (d) Addition operations.
Properties of Convolution
Commutative Property - For an LTI system with impulse response h(n) and input x(n), Commutative
property can be defined as x(n) ∗ h(n) = h(n) ∗ x(n)
∞

LHS = x n ∗ h n = x k h n−k 𝑝𝑢𝑡 (𝑛 − 𝑘) = 𝑙, 𝑘 =𝑛−𝑙

k=−∞
−∞ ∞

x n ∗h n = x n−l h n = h(n)x n − l = h n ∗ x n − − − −RHS

l=∞ l=−∞

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Associative Property
Statement - x(n)  [h1(n)  h2(n)] = [x(n) h1(n)]  h2(n)
∞

Proof − Let h n = [h1 (n) ∗ h2 (n)] = ℎ1 𝑙 ℎ2 𝑛 − 𝑙 − − − − − (𝑎)

𝑙=−∞
∞

LHS = x(n)[h1 (n) ∗ h2 (n)] = x(n)h n = x k h n−k − − − −(𝑏)

𝑙=−∞
∞ ∞

Using equation a in equation b ==> 𝐿𝐻𝑆 = x k h1 l h2 n − k − l

k=−∞ l=−∞

Put (k+l) = r so that l = (r – k) and using linearity property

∞ ∞ ∞ ∞ ∞

LHS = x k h1 r − k h2 n − r = x k h1 r − k h2 n − r = z r h2 n − r
k=−∞ l=−∞ k=−∞ r=−∞ r=−∞
∞ ∞ ∞

LHS = x k h1 r − k h2 n − r = z r h2 n − r = z n ∗ h2 n
k=−∞ r=−∞ r=−∞

Where z(n) = x(n)  h1(n)

Hence x(n)  [h1(n)  h2(n)] = [x(n) h1(n)]  h2(n) ---- Proved

Distributive Property
Statement x(n)  [h1(n) + h2(n)] = [x(n) h1(n)] + [x(n)  h2(n)]
Proof - let h(n) = [h1(n) + h2(n)] and h(n – k) = [h1(n – k ) + h2(n – k )]
LHS = x(n)  [h1(n) + h2(n)] = x(n)  h(n)
∞ ∞

LHS = x k h n−k = x k [h1 n − k + h2 n − k ]

k=−∞ k=−∞
∞ ∞

LHS = x k h1 n − k + x k h2 n − k = x n h1 n + x n  h2 n − − − RHS

k=−∞ k=−∞

Prove the following (a) x(n)  (n) = x(n)

∞
1; k=n
x n  n = x k  n − k = x(n) since  n − k =
0; k≠n
k=−∞

Convolution of any sequence with unit sample sequence results in the same signal

(b) x(n)  (n – m) = x(n – m)

∞
1; k = (n − m)
x n  n−m = x k  n − m − k = x(n − m) since  n − m − k =
0; k ≠ (n − m)
k=−∞

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(c) (n – 1)  (n – 1) = (n – 2)

∞

(n – 1)  (n – 1) =  k − 1  n − k − 1 = (n – 2)

k=−∞
Since the product term inside the summation is non-zero at (k – 1) = 0 or k = 1 and (n – k – 1) = 0 or n =2
(d) (n + 1)  (n – 1) = (n )
∞

(n + 1)  (n – 1) =  k + 1  n − k − 1 = (n )

k=−∞
Since the product term inside the summation is non-zero at (k + 1) = 0 or k = –1 and (n – k – 1) = 0 or n = 0

Find the Convolution between the sequences x(n) = [1, 2, 3] h(n) = [2, 3, 5].
Solution
(1) Using Impulse functions
x(n) = x(n) = [1, 2, 3] = (n+1) + 2(n) + 3(n–1) and h(n) = [2, 3, 5] = 2(n+1) + 3(n) + 5(n–1)
y(n) = x(n)  h(n) = [(n+1) + 2(n) + 3(n–1)]  [2(n+1) + 3(n) + 5(n–1)]
y(n) = 2 (n+2) + 4 (n+1) + 6 (n) + 3 (n+1) + 6 (n) + 9 (n–1) + 5 (n) + 10 (n–1) + 15(n–2)
y(n) = [ 2, 7, 17, 19, 15]
(2) Using Impulse Response
x(n) = x(n) = [1, 2, 3] = (n+1) + 2(n) + 3(n–1)
h(n) = [2, 3, 5] = 2(n+1) + 3(n) + 5(n–1) ; h(-1) =2, h(0) = 3 and h(1) =5

y(n) = x(n)  h(n) = [(n+1) + 2(n) + 3(n–1)]  h(n) = h(n+1) +2 h(n) + 3 h(n–1)
y( –2 ) = h(–1) +2 h(–2) + 3 h( –3) = 2 + 0 + 0 = 2 y( –1 ) = h(0) +2 h(–1) + 3 h( –2) = 3 + 4 + 0 = 7
y( 0 ) = h(1) +2 h(0) + 3 h( –1) = 5 + 2(3) + 3(2) = 17 y( 1 ) = h(2) +2 h(1) + 3 h(0) = 0 + 2(5) + 3(3) = 19
y(2) = h(3) +2 h(2) + 3 h(1) = 0+3(2)+3(3) =9 y(n) = [2, 7, 17, 19, 15]

(3) Matrix Method

Given m =3; n = 3.
Number of output samples N = m + n –1
N= 3+3–1= 5 and Negative index = 1+1=2
y(n) = [ 2, 7, 17, 19, 15 ]

(4) Graphical method

Procedure
1. Represent x(n) and h(n) as a function of independent variable k as x(k) and h(k)
2. Fold any one of the sequence [h(k)] about k = 0 to get h(– k)
3. Time shift the reflected sequence h(– k) to get h(n– k). If n is +ve, shift to right and if n is – ve , shift to
left.
4. Determine the overlaps of h(n– k) with x(k) and multiply them
5. Add all values of the product x(k)h(n – k) to compute y(n) for one value of n .
6. Repeat steps 4,5 and 6 for all possible values of n to compute convolution sum.

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Given m =3; n = 3. Number of output samples N = m + n –1 = 3+3–1= 5 and negative index = 1+1=2
K –3 –3 –1 0 1 2 3 Convolution output
h(k) 2 3 5
x(k) 1 2 3
n=0; h(–k) 5 3 2 y(0) = 5(1) + 3(2) + 2(3) = 17
n= –1; h(–1–k) 5 3 2 y(–1) = 5(0) + 3(1) + 2(2) + 0(3) = 7
n= –2; h(–2–k) 5 3 2 y(–2) = 5(0) + 3(0) + 2(1) + 0(2) + 0(3) = 2
n= 1; h(1–k) 5 3 2 y(1) = 0(1) + 5(2) + 3(3) + 2(0) = 19
n= 2; h(2–k) 5 3 2 y(2) = 0(1) + 0(2) + 5(3) + 3(0) + 2(0) = 15
y(n) = [2, 7, 17, 19, 15]

1) Find the convolution between the sequences given below

(a) x(n) = [1, 2, 3, 4] h(n) = [1, 1, 2, 2 ]
Solution – The given sequences are finite hence use matrix method
y(n) = x(n) * h(n) = [1, 3, 8, 15, 17, 18, 8]
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(b) x(n) = u(n + 1) – u(n – 3) and h(n) = [ 1, 3, 2, -1, 1]

x(n) = u(n+1) –u(n -3) = [1, 1, 1, 1] and h(n) = [ 1, 3, 2, -1, 1]
m = 4, n= 5 and N= 4 + 5 – 1 = 8
Negative index = 1 + 0 = 1
Use Matrix method and compute y(n) = x(n)  h(n)
y(n) = [1, 4, 6, 5, 5, 2, 0, 1]

(c) x(n) = n + 2; 0  n  3 and h(n) = anu(n)

x(n) = [2, 3, 4, 5] = 2(n) + 3(n – 1) + 4(n – 2) + 5(n – 3)
y(n) = x(n)  h(n) = [2(n) + 3(n – 1) + 4(n – 2) + 5(n – 3)]  h(n)
y(n) = 2h(n) + 3h(n – 1) + 4h(n – 2) + 5h(n – 3) = 2anu(n) + 3an – 1 u(n – 1) + 4an – 2 u(n – 2) +5an – 3 u(n – 3)
y(n) = an[2u(n) +(3/a) u(n – 1) + (4/a) u(n – 2) +(5/a) u(n – 3)]
(2) Convolve (i) x(n) =  𝐧 𝐮(𝐧) and h(n) =  𝐧 𝐮(𝐧)

∞ ∞ k n−k n n k
1 1 1 β
y n =x n h n = x k h n−k = u k u n−k = − −(A)
α β β α
k=−∞ k=−∞ k=0

n+1
n β
1 n
β k
1 n 1− α n+1
− β n+1
α
y n = 1 1 = = u(n) − − − − − (α ≠ β)
β α β β α−β
k=0 1− α

Put  =  in equation (A)

n n n
1 k
1
y n = 1 = n + 1 u(n)
β β
k=0

𝟏 𝐧 𝟏 𝐧
(ii) x(n) = 𝟐
𝐮(𝐧) and h(n) = 𝟒
𝐮(𝐧)
∞ ∞ k n−k
1 1
i y n =x n h n = x k h n−k = u k u n−k
2 4
k=−∞ k=−∞

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n n k n n 2n
1 4 1 k
1 1 − 2n+1
y n = 1 1 = 2 2 =
4 2 2 2 1−2
k=0 k=0
2n n n
1 1 1
y n = 2n+1 − 1 = 2 −2n
2n+1 − 1 = 2−n+1 − 2 −2n
=2 −
2 2 4

(iii) x(n) = 𝛂 𝐧 𝐮 𝐧 ; 𝐡 𝐧 = 𝐮 𝐧 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝟎 < 𝛼 < 1

For n  0, convolution starts at k =0 and ends at k = n
∞ ∞ n
1 − αn+1
y n =x n h n = x k h n−k = k
α u k u n−k = α k
1 1 = u(n)
1−α
k=−∞ k=−∞ k=0

𝒊𝒗 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐮 𝐧 ; 𝐡 𝐧 = 𝐮 𝐧 + 𝟑

For ( n < 3), no convolution and hence y(n) = 0 and for n  3, convolution starts at k = 0 and ends at k = (n – 3)
∞ ∞ n−3

y n = x k h n−k = u k u n−k+3 = 1 = n − 3 + 1 = (n − 2)u(n − 3)

k=−∞ k=−∞ k=0

(v) 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐮 𝐧 + 𝟏 ; 𝐡 𝐧 = 𝐮 𝐧 − 𝟐
For ( n < 1), no convolution and hence y(n) = 0 and
for n  1, convolution limits are k = – 1 k  (n – 2)
∞ ∞ n−2

y n = x k h n−k = u k+1 u n−k−2 = 1 = [ n − 2 − (−1)] + 1 = n u(n − 1)

k=−∞ k=−∞ k=−1

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(vi) 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐧 + 𝟐 ; 𝟎  𝐧  𝟑 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐡 𝐧 = 𝜶𝒏 𝐮 𝐧
x(n) = [2, 3, 4, 5 ] = 2(n) + 3(n–1) + 4(n–2) + 5(n–3)
y(n) = x(n) * h(n) = [2(n) + 3(n–1) + 4(n–2) + 5(n–3)] * h(n) = [2h(n) + 3h(n–1) + 4h(n–2) + 5h(n–3)]
y(n) = 2𝛼 𝑛 u n + 3𝛼 𝑛−1 u n − 1 + 4𝛼 𝑛−2 u n − 2 + 5𝛼 𝑛−3 u n − 3
3 4 5
𝑦 𝑛 = 𝛼 𝑛 [2u n + u n−1 + 2 u n−2 + 3 u n−3
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎

𝒏
(vii) 𝒙 𝒏 = ; 𝟎 ≤𝒏≤𝟔
𝟑

𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝒉 𝒏 = 𝟏 ; −𝟐 ≤ 𝒏 ≤ 𝟐
𝑥 𝑛 = [0, (1/3), (2/3), 1, (4/3), (5/3), 2]
and h(n) = [ 1, 1, 1, 1, 1 ]
m = 7, n =5 N = m+n – 1 = 11
Negative index = 0 – 2 = – 2
y(n) = [0, (1/3), 1, (10/3), 5, (20/3), 6, 5, (11/3), 2 ]

𝟏; 𝟎 ≤𝐧≤𝟒 𝛂𝐧 ; 𝟎 ≤ 𝐧 ≤ 𝟔
3) Convolve 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐡 𝐧 =
𝟎; 𝐎𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞 𝟎; 𝐎𝐭𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐰𝐢𝐬𝐞
For n < 0 ; there is no overlap, hence convolution output y(n) = 0;
For 0  n  4; convolution starts at k = 0 and ends at k = n
∞ n n k
n−k n
1
y n = x k h n−k = 1 α =α
α
k=−∞ k=0 k=0
αn+1 − 1 α αn+1 αn+1 − 1 αn+1 − 1
y n = αn = =
α − 1 αn+1 αn+1 α − 1 α−1
For 4  n  6; convolution starts at k = 0 and ends at k = 4. The sequence h(n – k) is moved completely to
right. The last 4 impulses of x(k) coincides with h(n – k).
∞ 4 4 k
n−k n
1 α4+1 − 1 α5 − 1
y n = x k h n−k = 1 α =α = =
α α−1 α−1
k=−∞ k=0 k=0
5
α −1 αn+1 − 1
y n = = − − − − − −for the range 4  n  6
α−1 α−1

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For 6  n  10; convolution starts at k = (n – 6) and ends at k = 4. The sequence h(n – k) is moved further to
right. The impulses of x(k) coincides with h(n – k) decreases.
∞ 4

y n = x k h n−k = 1 αn−k
k=−∞ k=(n−6)
put r = (k – n+6) so that (n – k) = (6 – r) . When k = (n – 6)  r = 0 and when k = 4  r = (10 – n )
4 10−n 1 10−n+1 1 11−n
− 1 −1 1 − α 11−n α7
y n = 1 α n−k
= α6−r
=α 6 α = α =
1 1 1−α α11−n
k=(n−6) r=0 − 1 − 1
α α
1 − α 11−n n−4 αn−4 − αn−4+11−n αn−4 − α7
y n = α = = − − − − − −𝑓𝑜𝑟 6  n  10
1−α 1−α 1−α
for n > 10, there is no overlap hence y(n) = 0

4) Convolve x(n) = [ u(n+10) -2u(n) +u(n – 4)] and h(n) = u(n –2)
For n < –8 ; there is no overlap, hence convolution output y(n) = 0;
For n > –8 ; convolution has a definite value.
For the range (–8 < n < 2), convolution starts from k = –10 and ends at ( n – 2)
∞ n−2

y n = x k h n−k = 1 1 = n − 2 − −10 + 1 = n + 9
k=−∞ k=−10

For the range (2 < n < 5), convolution starts from k = –10 and ends at ( n – 2)
n−2 −1 n−2

y n = x k h n−k = 1 1+ −1 1
=−10 k=−10 k=0

y n = [ −1 − (−10 ) + 1] − ( n − 2 + 1) = 11 − n
For ( n  6), convolution starts from k = –10 and ends at k = 3
3 −1 3

y n = x k h n−k = 1 1+ −1 1 = −1 − −10 + 1 − 3 − 0 + 1 = 6
k=−10 k=−10 k=0
n + 9; −8 ≤ n ≤ 2
y n = 11 − n; 2 ≤ n ≤ 6
6; n≥6
𝟏
5) Convolve 𝐱 𝐧 = 𝐮 𝐧) − 𝐮(𝐧 − 𝟏𝟎 ; 𝐡 𝐧 = 𝟒 𝐮 𝐧 − 𝐮 𝐧 − 𝟒

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x(n) has 10 samples from x(0) to x(9) and h(n) has 4 samples from h(0) to h(3)
for n < 0 ; No convolution. y(n) = 0 and for n > 0, convolution has definite value
for 0  n  3, convolution starts at k = 0 and k = n
∞ n
1 1
y n = x k h n−k = 1. = (n + 1)
4 4
k=−∞ k=0
for n  3, convolution starts at k = (n – 3) and k = n in the range 3  n  9
∞ n
1 1
y n = x k h n−k = 1. = n − n − 3 + 1) = 1
4 4
k=−∞ k=(n−3)
for n > 9, convolution starts at k = (n – 3) ends at k = 9 in the range 9  n  12
∞ 9
1 1 13 − n
y n = x k h n−k = 1. = 9− n−3 + 1) =
4 4 4
k=−∞ k=(n−3)
II Method x(n) = [1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1] and h(n) = [(1/4), (1/4), (1/4), (1/4)] N = m+n – 1 = 10+4 – 1=13

5) Show that if input x(n) periodic with period N, then the output of the LTI system y(n) is also periodic.
Let n = p + N where N is the period so that x(n + N) = x(n)
∞ ∞

y n =x n ∗h n = x k h n−k = h k x n−k
k=−∞ k=−∞
∞ ∞

y p+N = h k x p+N−k = h k x p − k = h n ∗ x n = y n − − − − hence the proof

k=−∞ k=−∞

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