Ethiopian Institute of Technology - Mekelle

School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Electrical Power Engineering Stream

CHAPTER 3
GROUNDING SYSTEM AND TESTING OF ELECTRICAL INSTALLATION
I. Grounding System
A. Introduction
 The thin layer of material which covers our planet, be it rock, clay, sand, or soil is referred to
as “earth” or “ground” in the world of electrical engineering. The terms "ground" and
"earth" are synonymous. "Ground" is more common in North American English, and
"earth" is more common in British English.
 Equipment grounding or earthing in electrical wiring system is a circuit that provides a
low-impedance path (through a thick conductor wire having very low resistance) from the
metallic parts of electric appliances or installation back to the earth and thus prevent
hazardous voltages from appearing on equipment. Under normal conditions, a grounding
conductor from grounded equipment does not carry current.
 Principle: When the metallic part of electrical appliances comes in contact with a live
wire, maybe due to failure of installations or failure in cable insulation, the metal
becomes charged and static charge accumulates on it. If a person touches such a
charged metal, the result is a severe shock. To avoid such instances, the power supply
systems and parts of appliances have to be earthed so as to transfer the charge directly
to the earth.

Figure 3.1 Earthing or Grounding

 Bonding or earthed equipotential bonding is used for joining together the metallic parts of
different appliances, equipment, machines, or pipes and connect them to earth to bring them

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 at the same level of electric potential. (Note: Voltage is a “potential difference” with respect
to a reference or zero-point where “ground” is chosen as the reference point.)
 Bonding Situation (See Figure 3.2 below): During fault condition, the potential of
metallic parts of equipment/appliances rises to a higher value. When a person touches
the metallic parts during this condition, the person is exposed to a higher potential.
However, if the faulty appliances and the pipes are bonded and earthed together, they
will rise to the same potential. So simultaneous contact with two such metallic parts
would not result in a shock, as there will be no potential difference between them.

Figure 3.2 A person touching metallic parts of bonded equipment during fault

 System grounding or functional earthing serves a purpose other than shock protection, and
may carry current at normal condition. The most important example of a functional earth is the
neutral in an electrical supply system. It is also called supply grounding conductor in order to
distinguish it from the equipment grounding conductor. It is used to limit voltages due to
lightning, line surges, or unintentional contact with higher voltage lines and to stabilize the
voltage to ground during normal operation.

 Solid Earthing: When an electric device, appliance or electrical installation is connected to the
earth electrode without a fuse, circuit breaker or resistance/impedance.

 Protective earthing: In the event of a fault, the earthing conductor provides a low-impedance
path that initiates the tripping or blowing of the protective device of the circuit. However, earth
itself is sometimes not a good conductor unless it is very wet, and therefore presents a high
resistance to the flow of fault current. This resistance restricts the fault current to a level below
that of the rating of the protective device, leaving a faulty circuit uninterrupted. Clearly, this is
an unhealthy situation. However, in the modern wiring practice, an Automatic Disconnection

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 of Supply (ADS) by using Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI) is being used. A GFCI
is a Residual-Current Device (RCD) that will trip even during high impedance line-to-ground
fault. An alternative protection is also possible, especially when multiple independent failures
occur to expose a very dangerous condition. In this situation, a reinforced or double
insulation is used.
B. Components of Earthing System (See Figure 3.4)
 Earth electrode: The conductor (or conductive plate) buried in the earth for electrical
earthing system. Earth electrodes are in different shapes like, conductive plate, conductive
rod, tape type, metal water pipe or any other conductor with low resistance. The most popular
method is the rod earth electrode. The choice of length and diameter of the rod depends on
the soil conditions. For example, a long and thick electrode is used for earth with little
moisture retention. Generally, a 1 – 2 m rod, 16mm in diameter will give a relatively low
resistance. The plate type needs to be buried at a sufficient depth and having wider
excavation as the plates dimension could be 1 or 2 square meters square. The tape type is
used in earthing of large electric substations, where the tape is laid in trenches in a mesh
formation over the whole site.
 Safety: 80% to 90% of the voltage appearing at the electrode under fault conditions is
dropped across the earth in the first 2.5 to 3m. This is dangerous where livestock are
present as the rear and front legs of animals can respectively be inside and outside the
resistance area. This problem can be overcome by earthing the whole electrode below
ground level and by providing protection that operates in a fraction of a second (earth
leakage circuit breaker).

Figure 3.3 Earthing the electrode below ground level for safety

 Resistance Values: Values of resistance depend on the type of soil and its moisture
content. Soil that holds moisture such as clay or marshy ground has low resistance,

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 whereas gravel or rock has high resistivity. Typical values of resistivity in ohms are as
follows:
Garden soil 5 to 10
Clay 10 to 100
Sand 250 to 500
Rock 1,000 to 10,000
 Earthing lead: The conductor wire or conductive strip connected between earth electrode and
electrical installation system and devices in called the earthing lead.
 Materials: Copper wire can be used as earthing lead but, copper strip is also used for
high installation and it can handle the high fault current because of wider area than the
copper wire.

 Connection: To increase the safety factor of installation, two copper wires are used as
earthing lead to connect the device metallic body to the earth electrode. This means that if
we use two earth electrodes or earth plats, there would be four earthing leads. See figure
3.3 below.

 Size: The size or area of earthing lead should not be less than the half of the thickest wire
used in the installation. If the load current is 200A or more from the supply voltage, then
it is recommended to use copper strip instead of double earthing lead.

Figure 3.4 Earth lead connection with two earth electrodes

 Earth continuity conductor or earth wire: The conductor wire, which is connected among
different electrical devices such as, distribution board, plugs and socket outlets of equipment

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 and appliances, conduit, ducts, boxes, metallic shells of switches, fuses, regulating and
controlling devices and metallic parts of electrical machines are connected to the earthing lead.
It may be in the shape of metal pipe (fully or partial), or cable metallic sheath or flexible wire.
 Resistance: According to IEEE rules, resistance of earth wire should be less than 1Ω.
 Size: The cross sectional area of earth wire should not be less than half of the cross
sectional area of the thickest wire used in the electrical wiring installation.

Figure 3.5 Components of Earthing System

C. Earthing Systems
 The conductors used for earthing are called protective conductors, and can be further
subdivided into:
 Circuit protective conductors, for connecting exposed conductive parts to the main
earthing terminal.
 Main equipotential bonding conductors for bonding together main incoming
services, structural steel work, etc.
 Supplementary bonding conductors for bonding together sinks, baths, taps, radiators
etc., and exposed conductive parts.
 Earth systems have been designated in the IEE (Institution of Electrical Engineers, UK
Standard) regulations using letters T, N, C and S. These letters stand for:
T = Earth (from the French word Terre)
N = Neutral
S = Separate
C = Combined
I = Isolated (The source of a system is either connected to earth through a
deliberately introduced earthing impedance or is isolated from earth.

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 The system can either be TN-S, TN-C-S, TT or IT given in accordance with the Electricity
Safety, Quality and Continuity Regulations. When designing an electrical installation, one of
the first things to determine is the type of earthing system. The distributor will be able to
provide this information.
 First letter corresponds to the supply earthing arrangement.
o T indicates that one or more points of the supply are directly earthed.
o I indicates that the supply is isolated from earthed (not earthed).
 Second letter corresponds to the installation earthing arrangements.
o T indicates that all exposed conductive metal parts are connected directly to
earth.
o N indicates that all exposed conductive metal parts are connected directly to the
earthed supply conductor usually the neutral.
 Third and Forth letters correspond to the earthed supply conductor arrangement.
o S indicates separate neutral and earthed conductor.
o C indicates combined neutral and earth in single conductor.
1. TN-S System: The neutral of the source of energy is connected with earth at one point only,
at or as near as reasonably practicable to the source. The consumer’s earth terminal is
connected to the supply’s protective conductor. Usually the cable sheath and armoring
provide a continuous metallic path back to the earth electrode of the distributor’s service
cable. The majority of underground installations are of this type.

Figure 3.6 The TN-S Earthing System

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Figure 3.7 Cable sheath earth (TN-S system). The schematic of earthing and main
equipotential-bonding arrangements. (Note: An isolator is not always installed by the electricity
distributor.)

2. TT System: A TT system, shown below, has the neutral of the source of energy
connected as for TN-S, but no facility is provided by the distributor for the consumer’s
earthing. With TT, the consumer must provide their own connection to earth, i.e. by
installing a suitable earth electrode local to the installation.

Figure 3.8 The TT Earthing System

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Figure 3.9 No earth provided (TT system). Manufacturer’s recommendations should be
sought with regards to connections to earth electrodes.

3. TN-C-S System: A TN-C-S system, shown in the figure below, has the supply neutral
conductor of a distribution main connected with earth at source and at intervals along its
run. This is usually referred to as Protective Multiple Earthing (PME). With this
arrangement the distributor’s neutral conductor is also used to return earth fault currents
arising in the consumer’s installation safely to the source. To achieve this, the distributor
will provide a consumer’s earthing terminal which is linked to the incoming neutral
conductor.

Figure 3.10 The TN-C-S Earthing System

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 Figure 3.11 The PME supply (TN-C-S system). Schematic of earthing and main
equipotential bonding arrangements

4. IT system: The exposed conductive parts of the installation are connected to the
consumers earth electrode, while the supply is either isolated from earth connected to
earth through an impedance.
II. Checking and Testing of Electrical Installation
On completion of the electrical work and before the electricity supply is connected and
energized, the electrical engineer or contractor is responsible to ensure that:

 The electrical work has been carried out in accordance with Electricity Regulations
 The installation has been checked and tested and is safe for connection to the electricity
supply.
To achieve this, the following minimum checks and tests should be carried out by the electrical
practitioner:

1. Visual Inspection: It should be carried out, referring to the electrical plan (to ensure a
systematic check to verify that the work complies with the standard requirements).

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 2. Main Earth Resistance and Earth Continuity Tests: This test ensures that all
protective conductors (the Main Protective Conductor and the Earthing Conductor)
and bonding conductors are electrically sound and correctly connected and
continuous throughout their length.
3. Continuity of Ring Final Circuit Conductors: This test is to verify that the ring final
circuits are correctly wired and connected, continuous throughout and that their
conductors are not interconnected or bridged.
4. Insulation Resistance Test: This test is necessary to ensure that the insulation
resistance between phase conductors and earth is adequate.
5. Polarity Test: Used to ensure correct connection of phase, neutral and earthing
conductors.
A. Main Earthing and Earth Continuity Resistance Tests
 Earthing System Impedance (Resistance): The resistance from any point of the
electrical installation required to be earthed, to the point where the main earthing
conductor is connected to the neutral conductor (MEN connection) of the supply
system, shall be low enough to permit the passage of current necessary to operate the
circuit protective devices. Earthing conductor resistance equals meter reading
minus test lead resistance.
Table 1 Maximum resistance values of final sub-circuit protective earthing conductors

 Test Equipment
o A multi-meter set to ohms (low reading ohm-meter).
o Insulated copper conductor of suitable length (long lead).
 Test Procedure:
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1. Ensure that the electricity supply has been disconnected.
2. Connect an insulated copper conductor of suitable length (long lead) to one terminal
of the ohm meter.
3. Connect a standard length test lead to the other terminal of the ohm meter (short
lead).
4. Connect the two leads together, and zero the multi-meter or, if this is not possible,
record the resistance of the test leads.
5. Disconnect the supplementary conductors that are bonding together sinks, baths, taps,
radiators etc., and exposed conductive parts.
Note: Care must be taken that there are no parallel earth paths when conducting
this test. This is done by disconnecting the conductor under test from its
terminal and any other supplementary conductor.
6. Disconnect the MEN link from the main neutral link and connect it to the long lead.
7. Testing of Main Earthing Conductor: Connect the short lead to the earth electrode
and measure the earth resistance of the main earthing conductor. The measured
resistance shall not exceed 0.5 ohms.
8. Testing of Earth Continuity Conductor: Using the long lead and zeroed multi-
meter, measure, for each circuit, the earth conductor resistance from the circuit
extremity to the switchboard/distribution board and record the measured values.
Confirm if the measured values are LESS THAN those values provided in Table 1.
9. Re-connect the MEN link to the main neutral link.
10. Reconnect the supplementary equipotential bonding conductors.

Table 3.12 Earth Continuity Conductor Test on a Domestic System

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 Table 3.13 Test of Bathroom Equipotential Bonding System

Table 3.14 Test of Kitchen Equipotential Bonding System

B. Continuity of Ring Final Circuit Conductors: This test is to verify that the ring final
circuits are correctly wired and connected, continuous throughout and that their conductors
are not interconnected or bridged.
 Test Equipment:
o A multi-meter set to ohms (low reading ohm-meter).
o Insulated copper conductor of suitable length (long lead).
 Test Procedure:
1. Disconnect the phase, neutral and earth conductors from their terminals in the
distribution board. Separate them from each other.
2. Measure the resistance of each of the three loops individually and record the readings
taken. The phase and neutral readings should be equal. The protective conductor may
have a different cross-sectional area to that of the phase and neutral.
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 (Example: A 2.5 mm2 twin and earth cable has a 1.5 mm2 protective conductor. In
this case, multiply the resistance of the phase or neutral conductor by a factor of
1.67 to cross check the protective conductor reading (2.5 / 1.5 = 1.67). If there is a
difference in the loop resistance readings check for a poor or loose connection.

Table 3.15 Test for Continuity of Ring Final Circuit Conductors

C. Insulation Resistance Test: This test is to ensure that there are no short circuits between
phase conductors or between phase conductors and earth, and that there is no deterioration in
insulation resistance caused by damage or dampness.

A direct voltage is applied to test insulation resistance. A high voltage is used because this
will often break down poor insulation and show up insulation weakness which is not noticed
at lower voltage levels.

An insulation resistance tester (Megger) measures the applied voltage and the resulting
leakage current flow. The resistance displayed, is obtained by an internal calculation based
on Ohm’s Law.

 Test Instrument Required

o An insulation resistance tester (having a DC test voltage which is dependent on
the supply voltage).

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 Warning: Ensure that circuits are not live before commencing testing. Never turn the
function dial while the test button is depressed. This may damage the instrument. Never
touch the circuit under test during insulation resistance testing.
 Before testing always check the following:
o The “battery low” indicator is not showing.
o There is no visual damage to the tester or test leads.
o Check the continuity of the test leads. To check the continuity of the test leads:
 Short the test leads together.
 The reading should be almost zero Ohm.
 An over-range (OR) indication will mean that the leads are faulty or the
instrument fuse is blown.
o Select the required test voltage (250 V, 500 V or 1000 V) by rotating the function
dial. Note: The test voltage used for low voltage installations is 500 Volts.
o Select the required range (20 M, 200 M, 2000 MΩ) by rotating the range selector.
Note: Start on the highest range and only select a lower range if required.
o Attach the test leads to the instrument and to the circuit to be tested. If the voltage
warning beeper sounds do not press the test button or the instrument will be
damaged.
o Disconnect the instrument from the circuit. The circuit is live and must be de-
energized before further testing.
o If all is well continue the test. The value of insulation resistance will be displayed
in Mega-Ohms.
 Note: The minimum acceptable resistance value is 1 MΩ. An installation test may
produce a reading in excess of 100 MΩ. If a reading of 2 MΩ or less is discovered, the
reason should be investigated and corrected.
 It should be noted that the system charges up to the test voltage used. Thus it can be
dangerous for people or animals to make contact with an electrical installation which is
under test. Even when the test voltage is removed, the wiring system may remain charged
for a significant time unless steps are taken to provide a path for discharge current.
 When testing is complete ensure that the test button is released before the test leads are
disconnected. This is because the system may be charged up and it must be allowed
discharge through the test meter internal discharge resistor.

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 Pre Test Procedures and Observations
1. The installation must be disconnected from the supply.
2. The Main Protective Conductor must be disconnected from the supply neutral.
3. All fuses are intact and all MCBs and switches are closed.
4. All current using equipment including lamps, pilot lights, bell transformers,
smoke alarm units, PIR units, timers etc. are disconnected or otherwise excluded
from the test between live conductors.
5. Note: Where disconnection or removal of these items is impractical the control
switches should be in the off position. Items left in circuit will cause false low
readings.
6. Any equipment containing electronic circuitry must be disconnected or switched
off in order to prevent damage by the high test voltage.
A. Test of Insulation Resistance between all phase Conductors and the Protective
Conductor
o Method
 Connect all live and neutral conductors together at the distribution board
and test between them and the protective conductor. The reading obtained
should be 1M or greater. An infinitely high resistance reading would
be ideal.

Figure 3.16 Test of Insulation Resistance between all Live Conductors and the Protective
Conductor

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  When testing two way or two way and intermediate lighting circuits, it is essential that
both of the two way switches are switched over and the test repeated at each stage.
This is to ensure that all strappers and the switch wire are included in the test.

Figure 3.17 Test of Insulation Resistance between all Phase Conductors and the Protective
Conductor with Two-Way Switch (or Two-Way Switch Intermediate)

B. Insulation Resistance between Phase Conductors

 Method
o Test between phase and neutral conductors. The reading obtained should be 1 M
or greater. An infinitely high resistance reading would be ideal.

Figure 3.18 Insulation Resistance between Phase Conductors

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D. Polarity Test: This test is carried out to ensure that:
o Polarity at the main supply point is correct.
o The phase conductor is connected to fuses, single pole circuit breakers and
switches.
o Incoming supply is connected to back contact of screw in type fuses.
o The phase conductor is connected to the centre contact of ES type lampholders .
o All wiring is correctly connected at socket outlets and other similar accessories.
 Test Procedure for Testing Socket Outlets:
o Ensure that all equipment or appliances are unplugged or otherwise removed.
o With the circuit MCB in the “off” position, connect one end of the long trailing
lead to the outgoing terminal of the circuit MCB. Using the other end in
conjunction with the test meter leads, take readings from the phase terminal of all
the points around the circuit e.g. switches, luminaries, sockets, etc.
o Note: Continuity (approx. resistance of conductor involved) at each outlet ensures
that polarity is correct.
o If the supply is disconnected from the installation the long trailing lead may be
connected to the phase busbar and the MCB should then be left in the “on”
position.

Figire 3.19 Polarity Test of Socket Outlets

 Test Procedure for Testing Lighting Circuits: This test must be done with the supply
disconnected and may be carried out as follows:
o Remove circuit FUSE or open MCB.
o Remove all lamps from relevant circuit.

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 o Connect one end of the long trailing lead to the outgoing terminal of the circuit
MCB.
o Using the other end in conjunction with the test meter leads, take readings from
the phase terminal at all the points around the circuit e.g. switches and ES
lampholders.
o Note: Continuity (approx. resistance of conductor involved) at each point ensures
that polarity is correct.
o If the supply is disconnected from the installation the long trailing lead may be
connected to the phase busbar and the MCB should then be left in the “on”
position.

Figire 3.20 Polarity Test of Switches

Figire 3.21 Polarity Test of ES Lampholder

Note:
The circuit switch must be turned “on” when checking polarity of ES lampholder.
Hazards Associated with Live Testing
 The circuit under test should be isolated prior to connecting any test equipment and then
made live in order to conduct the test.
 It is essential that all leads and crocodile clips are in good condition.
 Care must be taken to ensure that leads do not short to each other or to earth.
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