Formulas and Conversions

Chapter 5
Engineering Concepts and Formulae

5.1 Electricity

Ohm's Law
V
I=
R

Or

V = IR

Where
I = current (amperes)
E = electromotive force (volts)
R = resistance (ohms)

Temperature correction
Rt = Ro (1 + αt)

Where
Ro = resistance at 0ºC (.)
Rt = resistance at tºC (.)
α = temperature coefficient which has an average value for copper of 0.004
28 (Ω/Ω ºC)

(1 + αt2 )
R2 = R1
(1 + αt1 )

Where R1 = resistance at t1
R2 = resistance at t2

Values of Ω/Ω ºC
alpha

Copper 0.00428

Platinum 0.00358

Nickel 0.00672

Tungsten 0.00450

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 Formulas and Conversions

Aluminum 0.0040

nqvtA
Current, I = = nqvA
t

Conductor Resistivity
ρL
R=
a

Where
ρ = specific resistance (or resistivity) (ohm meters, Ωm)
L = length (meters)
a = area of cross-section (square meters)

Quantity Equation

Resistance R of a uniform L
conductor R=ρ
A
Resistors in series, Rs Rs = R1 + R2 + R3

Resistors in parallel, R p 1 1 1 1
= + +
R p R1 R2 R3
Power dissipated in resistor: V2
P = VI = I 2 R =
R
Potential drop across R V=IR

Dynamo Formulae
2ϕNpZ
Average e.m.f. generated in each conductor =
60c

Where
Z = total number of armature conductors
c = number of parallel paths through winding between positive and negative brushes
Where c = 2 (wave winding), c = 2p (lap winding)
Φ = useful flux per pole (webers), entering or leaving the armature
p = number of pairs of poles
N = speed (revolutions per minute)

Generator Terminal volts = EG – IaRa

Motor Terminal volts = EB + IaRa

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 Formulas and Conversions

Where EG = generated e.m.f.

EB = generated back e.m.f.
Ia = armature current
Ra = armature resistance

Alternating Current
RMS value of sine curve = 0.707 of maximum value
Mean Value of Sine wave = 0.637 of maximum value
Form factor = RMS value / Mean Value = 1.11
pN
Frequency of Alternator = cycles per second
60
Where p is number of pairs of poles
N is the rotational speed in r/min

Slip of Induction Motor

[(Slip speed of the field – Speed of the rotor) / Speed of the Field] × 100

Inductors and Inductive Reactance

Physical Quantity Equation

Inductors and Inductance di

VL = L
dt
Inductors in Series: LT = L1 + L2 + L3 + . . . .

Inductor in Parallel: 1 1 1 1
= + + + .....
L T L1 L 2 L 3

Current build up -
t

(switch initially closed after having At v L ( t) = E e τ

been opened) −
t

v R ( t) = E(1 - e ) τ

t
E -
i(t) = (1 − e τ
)
R
L
τ=
R
Current decay -
t

(switch moved to a new position) i(t) = I o e τ′

vR(t) = R i(t)
vL(t) = − RT i(t)

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 Formulas and Conversions

Physical Quantity Equation

L
τ' =
RT

Alternating Current f = 1/T

ϖ=2πf

Complex Numbers: C=a+jb

C = M cos θ + j M sin θ
M = a 2 + b2
⎛b⎞
θ = tan -1 ⎜ ⎟
⎝a⎠
Polar form: C=M∠θ

Inductive Reactance |XL| = ω L

Capacitive Reactance |XC| = 1 / (ω C)

Resistance R

Impedance Resistance: ZR = R ∠0°

Inductance: ZL = XL ∠90° = ω L ∠90°
Capacitance: ZC = XC ∠-90° = 1 / (ωC)
∠-90°

Quantity Equation

Ohm’s Law for AC V=IZ

Time Domain v(t) = Vm sin (ω t ± φ)

i(t) = Im sin (ω t ± φ)

Phasor Notation V = Vrms ∠ φ

V = Vm ∠ φ

Components in Series ZT = Z1 + Z2 + Z3 + .
.

Voltage Divider Rule Zx

Vx = VT
ZT

Components in Parallel 1 1 1 1
= + + + ...
Z T Z1 Z 2 Z 3

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Current Divider Rule ZT

Ix = IT
Zx

Two impedance values in Z1 Z 2

parallel ZT =
Z1 + Z 2

Capacitance

Capacitors Q
C= [F] (Farads)
V
Capacitor in Series 1 1 1 1
= + + + .....
C T C1 C 2 C 3

Capacitors in Parallel C T = C1 + C 2 + C 3 + .....

Charging a Capacitor E -
t
i(t) = e RC
R
t
-
v R ( t) = E e RC

t
-
v C ( t) = E(1 - e RC
)
τ = RC

Discharging a V -
t

Capacitor i(t) = − o e τ ′
R
t
-
v R ( t) = − Vo e τ′

t
-
v C ( t) = Vo e τ ′
τ' = RTC

Quantity Equation

Capacitance Q
C=
V

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Capacitance of a εA
Parallel-plate Capacitor C=
d
V
E =
d
Isolated Sphere C = 4πεr

Capacitors in parallel C = C1 + C2 + C3

Capacitors in series 1 1 1 1
= + +
C C1 C 2 C 3

Energy stored in a Q
2
1 1
charged capacitor W = = CV 2 = QV
2C 2 2
If the capacitor is Q
2

isolated W =
2C
If the capacitor is 1
connected to a battery W = CV 2
2

For R C circuits Q = Qo (1 - e-t/RC);

V = Vo
Charging a capacitor (1 - e-t/RC)

Discharging a capacitor Q = Qo e- t/RC

V = Vo e-t/RC

• If the capacitor is isolated, the presence of the dielectric decreases the potential
difference between the plates
• If the capacitor is connected to a battery, the presence of the dielectric increases the
charge stored in the capacitor.
• The introduction of the dielectric increases the capacitance of the capacitor

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 Formulas and Conversions

Current in AC Circuit
RMS Current

In Cartesian V ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞⎤
I= ⋅ ⎢ R − j ⎜ ωL − ⎟
form
⎡ 2 ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎤ ⎣
2
⎝ ωC ⎠⎥⎦
⎢ R + ⎜ ωL − ⎟ ⎥
⎢⎣ ⎝ ωC ⎠ ⎦⎥
Amperes

In polar form V
I= ∠ − φ s Amperes
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
[ R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟ ]
⎝ ωC ⎠
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ωL −
where φ s = tan −1 ⎢ ωC ⎥
⎥
⎢ R ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Modulus V
I = Amperes
2
⎛ 1 ⎞
R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟
⎝ ωC ⎠

Complex Impedance

In Cartesian ⎛ 1 ⎞
form Z = R + j ⎜ ωL − ⎟ Ohms
⎝ ωC ⎠
In polar form 2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z = R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟ ∠φ s Ohms
⎝ ωC ⎠
⎡ 1 ⎤
⎢ ωL −
Where φ s = tan −1 ⎢ ωC ⎥
⎥
⎢ R ⎥
⎣ ⎦
Modulus 2
⎛ 1 ⎞
Z = [ R 2 + ⎜ ωL − ⎟ ] Ohms
⎝ ωC ⎠

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 Formulas and Conversions

Power dissipation

Average power, P = VI cos φ Watts

Power dissipation in a 2
P = I R Watts
resistor

Rectification

Controlled half wave

rectifier Average DC voltage =
Vm
(1 + cos α )
2π
Volts

Controlled full wave

rectifier Average DC voltage =
Vm
(1 + cos α )
π
Volts

Power Factor

DC V2
Power Pdc = VI = I 2 R =
R
AC Pac = Re(V .I ) = VI cos φ
Power

Power in ac circuits

Quantity Equation

Resistance The mean power = P = Irms Vrms = Irms2 R

Inductance The instantaneous power = (Io sin wt) (Vo sin (wt +
π)

The mean power P =0

Capacitance The instantaneous power = (Io sin (wt + π/2)) (Vo sin
wt )

The mean power P =0

Formula for a.c. The mean power = P = Irms Vrms cos φ

power

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 Formulas and Conversions

Three Phase Alternators

Star connected
Line voltage = 3 • Phase Voltage
Line current = phase current
Delta connected
Line voltage = phase voltage
Line current = 3 • Phase Current
Three phase power
P = 3 • EL • IL • Cos φ

Where:
P is the active power in Watts
EL is the Line Voltage in Volts
IL is the line current in Amperes
Cos φ is the power factor

Electrostatics

Quantity Equation

Instantaneous current, dq dv
I= =C Amperes
dt dt
Permittivity of free space 10 −9
ε0 = = 8.85 × 10 −12 Farads
36π
(meters)-1

Energy stored in a 1
capacitor = CV 2 Joules
2

Quantity Equation

Coulomb’s law Q1Q2

F =k
r2

Electric fields F
E=
q

Due to a point charge Q

E=
4πε o r 2

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Due to a conducting sphere carrying charge E=0

Q Inside the sphere

Outside the sphere Q

E=
4πε o r 2

Just outside a uniformly charged conducting σ

E =
sphere or plate εo

• An electric field E is a vector

• The electric field strength is directly proportional to the number of electric field lines
per unit cross-sectional area,
• The electric field at the surface of a conductor is perpendicular to the surface.
• The electric field is zero inside a conductor.

Quantity Equation

Suppose a point charge Q is at A. The work done in Qq

bringing a charge q from infinity to some point a distance W =
4πε o r
r from A is

Electric potential W
V =
q

Due to a point charge Q

V =
4πε o r

Due to a conducting sphere, of radius a, carrying charge Q

Q: V =
4πε o a
Inside the sphere

Outside the sphere Q

V =
4πε o r

If the potential at a point is V, then the potential energy U = qV

of a charge q at that point is

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

Work done in bringing charge q from A of potential VA to W = q (VB – VA)

point B of potential VB

Relation between E and V dV

E=−
dx

For uniform electric field V

E =
d

Magnetostatics

Physical Quantity Equation

Magnetic flux density (also called the B- F

field) is defined as the force acting per unit B=
current length.
Iλ

Force on a current-carrying conductor in a F = I λ BF = I λ · B

magnetic field
And Magnitude of F = F = I λ B
sin θ

Force on a moving charged particle in a F=q v · B

magnetic field

Circulating Charges mv 2
qvB =
r

Calculation of magnetic flux density

Physical Quantity Equation

Magnetic fields around a long straight wire μo I

carrying current I B=
2πa
where a = perp. distance from a
very long straight wire.

Magnetic fields inside a long solenoid, I: B = μo n I, where n = number of

carrying current turns per unit length.

Hall effect VH
At equilibrium Q = QvB and VH = B v d
d

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 Formulas and Conversions

Physical Quantity Equation

The current in a material is given by I = nQAv

The forces between two current-carrying μ o I1 I 2 λ

conductors F21 =
2πa

Physical Quantity Equation

The torque on a rectangular coil in a magnetic T = F b sin θ

field = N I λ B b sinθ
= N I A B sinθ

If the coil is in a radial field and the plane of the T = N I A B sin θ

coil is always parallel to the field, then = N I A B sin 90o
=NIAB

Magnetic flux φ φ = B A cos θ

and
Flux-linkage = Nφ
Current Sensitivity θ NAB
SI = =
I c

Lenz's law d
The direction of the induced e.m.f. is such that it tends to ε = −N φ
oppose the flux-change causing it, and does oppose it if dt
induced current flows.

EMF Equations

E.m.f. induced in a straight conductor ε =BLv

E.m.f. induced between the center and the rim of a spinning ε = B πr2f
disc

E.m.f. induced in a rotating coil Ε = N A B w sin

wt

Quantity Equation

Self-induction ε
L=−
dI / dt

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 Formulas and Conversions

Quantity Equation

N φ =LI

Energy stored in an inductor: 1 2

U= LI
2
Transformers: VS N S
=
VP N P

The L R (d.c.) circuit: E

I= (1 − e − Rt / L )
R
When a great load (or smaller VP − ε p
resistance) is connected to Vp -εp = I R; I =
R
the secondary coil, the flux in
the core decreases. The
e.m.f., εp, in the primary coil
falls.

Kirchoff’s laws
Kirchoff's first law (Junction Theorem)
At a junction, the total current entering the junction is equal to the total
current leaving the junction.

Kirchoff's second law (Loop Theorem)

The net e.m.f. round a circuit is equal to the sum of the p.d.s round the loop.

Physical Quantity Equation

Power W
P= = VI
t
Electric current q
I=
t
Work W = qV

Ohm’s Law V = IR
Resistances in Series R T = R1 + R 2 Κ

Resistances in Parallel 1 1 1
= + Κ
R T R1 R 2

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 Formulas and Conversions

Magnetic flux Φ = BA
Electromagnetic (Φ 2 − Φ 1 )
induction Emf = − N
t
emf = l v B

Magnetic force F=I l B

Transformer turns ratio Vs Ns

=
Vp Np

Electromagnetic spectrum

Wavelength
2 -1 -2 -3
λ (m) 10 10 1 10 10 10 10-4 10-5 10-6 10-7 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11

radio frequencies
X-rays

Area of microwaves
Spectrum
visible

ultraviolet
radiation

gamma rays
infrared radiation

f(Hz) 106 107 108 109 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020
Frequency

Note: 1. Shaded areas represent regions of overlap.

2. Gamma rays and X-rays occupy a common region.

5.2 Applied Mechanics

5.2.1 Newton's laws of motion

Newton' first law of motion
The inertia of a body is the reluctance of the body to change its state of rest or motion.
Mass is a measure of inertia.

Newton's second law of motion

mv-mu
F= ;
Δt

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 Formulas and Conversions

Nominal Outside Inside Wall

Flow area
pipe size diameter diameter thickness
(m2)
(in) (mm) (mm) (mm)

2½ 73.0 62.7 5.16 3.090 × 10-3

3 88.9 77.9 5.49 4.768 × 10-3

3½ 101.6 90.1 5.74 6.381 × 10-3

4 114.3 102.3 6.02 8.213 × 10-3

5 141.3 128.2 6.55 1.291 × 10-2

6 168.3 154.1 7.11 1.864 × 10-2

8 219.1 202.7 8.18 3.226 × 10-2

10 273.1 254.5 9.27 5.090 × 10-2

12 323.9 303.2 10.31 7.219 × 10-2

14 355.6 333.4 11.10 8.729 × 10-2

16 406.4 381.0 12.70 0.1140

18 457.2 428.7 14.27 0.1443

20 508.0 477.9 15.06 0.1794

24 609.6 574.7 17.45 0.2594

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