Chapter 10: Alignment Design Road Planning and Design Manual

In engineering terms, road alignments have to become more alert at a particular point in time
service traffic in terms of providing a route that and not be able to recall the last few minutes of
meets constraints imposed by vehicle dynamics, the trip.
occupant comfort, and topography. This means
that most road alignments are in fact complex 3. Driver fatigue.
three-dimensional splines that do not have a
4. Driver use of drugs and alcohol.
simple mathematical definition. This problem has
historically been addressed by reducing the three- 5. Driver distraction.
dimensional alignment to two two-dimensional

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alignments. In each case, the alignments are made 6. Driving at night/dawn/dusk.
up of geometric elements that are convenient to
7. Driving in rain.
calculate and construct yet still ensure that vehicle
dynamics constraints are met. Even with the 8. Driving in fog.
advent of computers, this approach has still
proven to be the most convenient for both design All of the above factors (except dot point 4) can
and construction. To use complex three- affect most drivers at particular times. This results
dimensional models would introduce unnecessary in instances where drivers have reduced
complexity into the process but it is necessary to perception of the roadway. For this reason, it is
ensure that the two alignments are properly very important to provide drivers with as many
coordinated and complement each other. clues as possible as to what lies ahead. This will
minimise any safety problems especially during
Details of the specific engineering requirements times of reduced driver perception. Roadside
for horizontal and vertical alignment are provided conditions must not be ambiguous or misleading
in Chapters 11 and 12 of this manual. The intent as this provides an inadequate level of driver
of this Chapter is to put those requirements in perception.
context and emphasise the importance of the
complementarity of the design of those elements. The provision of as many clues as possible as to
what lies ahead is especially critical for geometric
elements comprising a large decrease in speed i.e.
10.2.2 Driver Perception of high speed minor road ending at a rural
Roadway intersection. Methods to achieve this are
discussed in Section 8.6.
Drivers use the visual information of the roadway
geometry to develop their perception of the road Particular aspects of geometric design which
conditions and thereby control the speed and provide good/poor driver perception are discussed
position of their vehicles on the roadway. They below.
need sufficient information to allow them to take
the necessary decisions to safely negotiate each • Co-ordinating horizontal and vertical
geometric feature. alignments as discussed in Section 10.3
improves driver perception of the roadway.
The amount of visual information perceived by
drivers is limited, however, by the following: • The smooth curving face of a cutting can
provide good driver perception of the
1. Drivers travelling for relatively long periods of corresponding curvature in a road.
time at high speed become ‘velocitised’ (losing
perspective of speed of travel and physical Conversely, a fill cannot provide good driver
surroundings). perception if the view ahead is open to the sky
where there may be no visual background of
2. Inadequate attention because of driver ‘day fixed objects.
dreaming’ rather than concentrating entirely on
the driving task. In this state, a driver can often Even on flat terrain, a horizontal curve can
provide poor driver perception if there is no

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Road Planning and Design Manual Chapter 10: Alignment Design

visual background of fixed objects. Using a holistic approach will mean that designers
will critically examine the application of minimum
• Vegetation or other obstructions on the inside requirements in the design. Combinations of the
of sharper curves can provide inadequate driver minimum requirements of complementary
perception of the tightness of the curve. elements will rarely produce a satisfactory result
and in many cases will produce an unsafe result. A
• A driver will not expect a curve if this sole cue
better result will usually be achieved by adopting
comes from a line of service poles or trees
better than the minimum and this can often be
which continue straight on, or from a deceptive
done at the same or lower cost.
gap in a line of trees on the outside of the curve.

• A crest should not obscure a potential hazard

such as a narrow bridge, a railway at-grade 10.2.4 Aesthetics of Road
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crossing, an at-grade intersection or a Design
horizontal curve which requires a significant
reduction of speed. Even small crests can It is important to realise that no road can be
obscure important features. The visual clues regarded as aesthetically successful if it is not
presented to the driver by the view of the road integrated with the natural and man made features
surface are especially important on sections of that surround it. Cosmetic treatments in the form
sharp curvature. of shrubs and trees cannot overcome the aesthetic
deficiencies of poor location and design.

In addition to providing a pleasant visual

10.2.3 Holistic Design Approach
experience to drivers (and possibly because of it),
Designers must take a holistic approach to the accident rates are lower on roads with good
total road design and consider the effects of each aesthetic characteristics. Roads designed to fit the
element on the other elements of the design. The terrain and take advantage of adjacent natural
horizontal and vertical alignments must be features create less driving tension and weariness
considered together and the effect of the cross for the driver.
section must also be considered at this time. The Two perspectives have to be considered in the
approach to alignment coordination is discussed aesthetics of a road:
in 10.3.
• the view of the road; and
An important issue is the size of the road
compared to its surroundings (its scale). The cross • the view from the road.
section has the greatest effect on this - the wider
the road, the greater the scale. In some From the community perspective, the impact of
environments, a large scale may fit well with the the road on their outlook, or the appearance of the
surrounds and be compatible with them. However, road from their residences, is the major factor.
it is often the case that roads will have a scale too This perspective is helped by application of good
large for the environment and the design should design principles as discussed elsewhere in this
attempt to mitigate this effect. Chapter but it may be necessary to provide other
features such as shielding with vegetation and
Some design techniques that will tend to reduce earth mounds to overcome the intrusion of the
the perceived width and therefore the perceived road into the community’s landscape. This is
scale include: beyond the scope of this manual.
• Median planting
The view from the road is within the control of the
• Reducing the extent of shoulder seal designer and application of the design principles
• Independent grading enunciated in this manual should achieve a
pleasing result.
• Landscaping

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Figure 10.1 Well designed roads in harmony with their surroundings produce a pleasing appearance

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Road Planning and Design Manual Chapter 10: Alignment Design

It is desirable that any point of interest in the 10.2.5 Designing for Sun
vicinity of the road (e.g. areas of high scenic Position
value) be able to be viewed by users of the road.
The sub-section titled “Development and The impact of the sun shining directly into a
Maintenance of Views”, Section 3.4.2 of this driver's eyes should be considered in the location
Manual, discusses this issue. and design of a road. It is not always possible to
design a road to avoid this problem in all
circumstances but careful consideration should be
given to it particularly when conflict situations

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occur. An intersection on the crest of a hill is one
such case.

Judicious application of curvature, subtle changes

Undulating mound in direction and provision of appropriate
landscaping can help to alleviate some of the
situations where sun glare is a problem. The
different sun positions throughout the year make
the analysis more complex but they have to be
considered. Figures 10.3 and 10.4 provide solar
charts for Queensland and provide a guide for
designers in assessing the impact of sun position
on a road design.

10.3 Alignment Coordination

Narrow mounds 10.3.1 General

The importance of alignment coordination cannot

be over emphasised. The appearance, economy
and safety of the road design depend on the
successful achievement of proper coordination.
Details of the individual elements of horizontal
and vertical alignment design are provided in
Terraced mound Chapters 11 and 12 - this Chapter will address
their combination.

Coordination of alignment and profile should not

be left to chance but should begin at the concept
stage, during which adjustments can readily be
made. The designer should study long, continuous
stretches of highway in both plan and profile and
visualize the whole in three dimensions. (See
AASHTO, 1994).

If long lengths are not considered, it is possible to

produce discontinuities in appearance even
Retained mounds though the shorter lengths, taken in isolation, are
satisfactory. (See upper photograph in Figure
10.11).
Figure 10.2 Landscape Mounding Alternatives

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The centre of the diagram represents the observer’s position. The heavy curved lines represent the sun’s
path for selected dates and latitude 27.5° South and are crossed by lines indicating hours. To find the
sun’s position for the required conditions, select the point where the appropriate lines intersect. The sun’s
altitude (in degrees above the horizontal plane) is shown by the relation of this point to the concentric
circular lines within the diagram. The direction of the sun’s rays is shown by a line drawn through this point
from the outer graduated circle towards the centre.

Figure 10.3 Solar Chart for South Queensland

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The centre of the diagram represents the observer’s position. The heavy curved lines represent the sun’s
path for selected dates and latitude 20° South and are crossed by lines indicating hours. To find the sun’s
position for the required conditions, select the point where the appropriate lines intersect. The sun’s
altitude (in degrees above the horizontal plane) is shown by the relation of this point to the concentric
circular lines within the diagram. The direction of the sun’s rays is shown by a line drawn through this point
from the outer graduated circle towards the centre.

Figure 10.4 Solar Chart for North Queensland

August 2001 10-7