Computer Fundamentals -

Quick Guide

Computer - Overview
Today’s world is an information-rich world and it
has become a necessity for everyone to know
about computers. A computer is an electronic
data processing device, which accepts and
stores data input, processes the data input, and
generates the output in a required format.
The purpose of this tutorial is to introduce you to
Computers and its fundamentals.

Functionalities of a Computer
If we look at it in a very broad sense, any digital
computer carries out the following five functions
−
Step 1 − Takes data as input.
Step 2 − Stores the data/instructions in its
memory and uses them as required.
Step 3 − Processes the data and converts it into
useful information.
Step 4 − Generates the output.
Step 5 − Controls all the above four steps.

Advantages of Computers
Following are certain advantages of computers.
High Speed
Computer is a very fast device.
It is capable of performing calculation of
very large amount of data.
The computer has units of speed in
microsecond, nanosecond, and even the
picosecond.
It can perform millions of calculations in
a few seconds as compared to man who
will spend many months to perform the
same task.

Accuracy
In addition to being very fast, computers
are very accurate.
The calculations are 100% error free.

Computers perform all jobs with 100%

accuracy provided that the input is
correct.

Storage Capability
Memory is a very important
characteristic of computers.

A computer has much more storage

capacity than human beings.
It can store large amount of data.

It can store any type of data such as

images, videos, text, audio, etc.

Diligence
Unlike human beings, a computer is free
from monotony, tiredness, and lack of
concentration.
It can work continuously without any
error and boredom.

It can perform repeated tasks with the

same speed and accuracy.
Versatility
A computer is a very versatile machine.

A computer is very flexible in performing

the jobs to be done.
This machine can be used to solve the
problems related to various fields.

At one instance, it may be solving a

complex scientific problem and the very
next moment it may be playing a card
game.

Reliability
A computer is a reliable machine.
Modern electronic components have
long lives.

Computers are designed to make

maintenance easy.

Automation
Computer is an automatic machine.
Automation is the ability to perform a
given task automatically. Once the
computer receives a program i.e., the
program is stored in the computer
memory, then the program and
instruction can control the program
execution without human interaction.

Reduction in Paper Work and Cost

The use of computers for data
processing in an organization leads to
reduction in paper work and results in
speeding up the process.
As data in electronic files can be
retrieved as and when required, the
problem of maintenance of large number
of paper files gets reduced.
 Though the initial investment for
installing a computer is high, it
substantially reduces the cost of each of
its transaction.

Disadvantages of Computers
Following are certain disadvantages of
computers.

No I.Q.
A computer is a machine that has no
intelligence to perform any task.

Each instruction has to be given to the

computer.
A computer cannot take any decision on
its own.

Dependency
It functions as per the user’s instruction,
thus it is fully dependent on humans.

Environment
The operating environment of the
computer should be dust free and
suitable.

No Feeling
Computers have no feelings or emotions.

It cannot make judgment based on

feeling, taste, experience, and knowledge
unlike humans.

Computer - Applications
In this chapter, we will discuss the application of
computers in various fields.

Business
A

computer has high speed of calculation,

diligence, accuracy, reliability, or versatility which
has made it an integrated part in all business
organizations.
Computer is used in business organizations for −

Payroll calculations
Budgeting
Sales analysis
Financial forecasting
Managing employee database
Maintenance of stocks, etc.

Banking
Today,

banking is almost totally dependent on

computers.
Banks provide the following facilities −

Online accounting facility, which includes

checking current balance, making
 deposits and overdrafts, checking
interest charges, shares, and trustee
records.

ATM machines which are completely

automated are making it even easier for
customers to deal with banks.

Insurance

Insurance companies are keeping all records up-

to-date with the help of computers. Insurance
companies, finance houses, and stock broking
firms are widely using computers for their
concerns.
Insurance companies are maintaining a database
of all clients with information showing −

Procedure to continue with policies

Starting date of the policies
Next due installment of a policy
Maturity date
Interests due
Survival benefits
Bonus

Education
The computer helps in providing a lot of facilities
in the education system.
The computer provides a tool in the
 education system known as CBE
(Computer Based Education).
CBE involves control, delivery, and
evaluation of learning.
Computer education is rapidly increasing
the graph of number of computer
students.
There are a number of methods in which
educational institutions can use a
computer to educate the students.
It is used to prepare a database about
performance of a student and analysis is
carried out on this basis.

Marketing
In marketing, uses of the computer are following
−

Advertising − With computers,

advertising professionals create art and
graphics, write and revise copy, and print
and disseminate ads with the goal of
selling more products.
 Home Shopping − Home shopping has
been made possible through the use of
computerized catalogues that provide
access to product information and
permit direct entry of orders to be filled
by the customers.

Healthcare
Computers have become an important part in
hospitals, labs, and dispensaries. They are being
used in hospitals to keep the record of patients
and medicines. It is also used in scanning and
diagnosing different diseases. ECG, EEG,
ultrasounds and CT scans, etc. are also done by
computerized machines.
Following are some major fields of health care in
which computers are used.

Diagnostic System − Computers are

used to collect data and identify the
cause of illness.
Lab-diagnostic System − All tests can be
done and the reports are prepared by
computer.
Patient Monitoring System − These are
used to check the patient's signs for
abnormality such as in Cardiac Arrest,
ECG, etc.

Pharma Information System − Computer

is used to check drug labels, expiry
dates, harmful side effects, etc.
Surgery − Nowadays, computers are also
used in performing surgery.
Engineering Design
Computers are widely used for Engineering
purpose.
One of the major areas is CAD (Computer Aided
Design) that provides creation and modification
of images. Some of the fields are −

Structural Engineering − Requires stress

and strain analysis for design of ships,
buildings, budgets, airplanes, etc.
Industrial Engineering − Computers deal
with design, implementation, and
improvement of integrated systems of
people, materials, and equipment.
Architectural Engineering − Computers
help in planning towns, designing
buildings, determining a range of
buildings on a site using both 2D and 3D
drawings.

Military
Computers are largely used in defence. Modern
tanks, missiles, weapons, etc. Military also
employs computerized control systems. Some
military areas where a computer has been used
are −

Missile Control
Military Communication
Military Operation and Planning
Smart Weapons
Communication
Communication is a way to convey a message,
an idea, a picture, or speech that is received and
understood clearly and correctly by the person for
whom it is meant. Some main areas in this
category are −

E-mail
Chatting
Usenet
FTP
Telnet
Video-conferencing

Government
Computers play an important role in government
services. Some major fields in this category are −
Budgets
Sales tax department
 Income tax department
Computation of male/female ratio
Computerization of voters lists
Computerization of PAN card
Weather forecasting

Computer - Generations
Generation in computer terminology is a change
in technology a computer is/was being used.
Initially, the generation term was used to
distinguish between varying hardware
technologies. Nowadays, generation includes
both hardware and software, which together
make up an entire computer system.

There are five computer generations known till

date. Each generation has been discussed in
detail along with their time period and
characteristics. In the following table,
approximate dates against each generation has
been mentioned, which are normally accepted.
Following are the main five generations of
computers.
[Link] Generation & Description

First Generation
1 The period of first generation: 1946-
1959. Vacuum tube based.

Second Generation
2 The period of second generation: 1959-
1965. Transistor based.

Third Generation
3 The period of third generation: 1965-
1971. Integrated Circuit based.

Fourth Generation
4 The period of fourth generation: 1971-
1980. VLSI microprocessor based.

Fifth Generation
5 The period of fifth generation: 1980-
onwards. ULSI microprocessor based.

Computer - Types
Computers can be broadly classified by their
speed and computing power.
[Link]. Type Specifications

It is a single user
computer system
PC (Personal
1 having moderately
Computer)
powerful
microprocessor

It is also a single user

computer system,
similar to personal
2 Workstation
computer however
has a more powerful
microprocessor.

It is a multi-user
computer system,
3 Mini Computer capable of supporting
hundreds of users
simultaneously.

It is a multi-user
computer system,
capable of supporting
hundreds of users
4 Main Frame
simultaneously.
Software technology
is different from
minicomputer.

It is an extremely fast
computer, which can
execute hundreds of
5 Supercomputer
millions of
instructions per
second.

PC (Personal Computer)
A PC can be defined as a small, relatively
inexpensive computer designed for an individual
user. PCs are based on the microprocessor
technology that enables manufacturers to put an
entire CPU on one chip. Businesses use personal
computers for word processing, accounting,
desktop publishing, and for running spreadsheet
and database management applications. At
home, the most popular use for personal
computers is playing games and surfing the
Internet.
Although personal computers are designed as
single-user systems, these systems are normally
linked together to form a network. In terms of
power, now-a-days high-end models of the
Macintosh and PC offer the same computing
power and graphics capability as low-end
workstations by Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-
Packard, and Dell.

Workstation

Workstation is a computer used for engineering

applications (CAD/CAM), desktop publishing,
software development, and other such types of
applications which require a moderate amount of
computing power and relatively high quality
graphics capabilities.
Workstations generally come with a large, high-
resolution graphics screen, large amount of RAM,
inbuilt network support, and a graphical user
interface. Most workstations also have mass
storage device such as a disk drive, but a special
type of workstation, called diskless workstation,
comes without a disk drive.
Common operating systems for workstations are
UNIX and Windows NT. Like PC, workstations are
also single-user computers like PC but are
typically linked together to form a local-area
network, although they can also be used as
stand-alone systems.

Minicomputer
It is a midsize multi-processing system capable
of supporting up to 250 users simultaneously.

Mainframe
Mainframe is very large in size and is an
expensive computer capable of supporting
hundreds or even thousands of users
simultaneously. Mainframe executes many
programs concurrently and supports many
simultaneous execution of programs.
Supercomputer
Supercomputers are one of the fastest
computers currently available. Supercomputers
are very expensive and are employed for
specialized applications that require immense
amount of mathematical calculations (number
crunching).

For example, weather forecasting, scientific

simulations, (animated) graphics, fluid dynamic
calculations, nuclear energy research, electronic
design, and analysis of geological data (e.g. in
petrochemical prospecting).

Computer - Components
All types of computers follow the same basic
logical structure and perform the following five
basic operations for converting raw input data
into information useful to their users.

[Link]. Operation Description

The process of entering

1 Take Input data and instructions into
the computer system.

Saving data and

instructions so that they
2 Store Data are available for
processing as and when
required.

Performing arithmetic,
and logical operations on
Processing
3 data in order to convert
Data
them into useful
information.

The process of producing

useful information or
Output
4 results for the user, such
Information
as a printed report or
visual display.

Directs the manner and

Control the sequence in which all of
5
workflow the above operations are
performed.
Input Unit
This unit contains devices with the help of which
we enter data into the computer. This unit creates
a link between the user and the computer. The
input devices translate the information into a
form understandable by the computer.

CPU (Central Processing Unit)

CPU is considered as the brain of the computer.
CPU performs all types of data processing
operations. It stores data, intermediate results,
and instructions (program). It controls the
operation of all parts of the computer.
CPU itself has the following three components −
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
Memory Unit
Control Unit

Output Unit
The output unit consists of devices with the help
of which we get the information from the
computer. This unit is a link between the
computer and the users. Output devices translate
the computer's output into a form understandable
by the users.
 Computer - CPU(Central
Processing Unit)
Central Processing Unit (CPU) consists of the
following features −
CPU is considered as the brain of the
computer.
CPU performs all types of data
processing operations.
It stores data, intermediate results, and
instructions (program).
It controls the operation of all parts of the
computer.

CPU itself has following three components.

Memory or Storage Unit
Control Unit
ALU(Arithmetic Logic Unit)

Memory or Storage Unit

This unit can store instructions, data, and
intermediate results. This unit supplies
information to other units of the computer when
needed. It is also known as internal storage unit
or the main memory or the primary storage or
Random Access Memory (RAM).
Its size affects speed, power, and capability.
Primary memory and secondary memory are two
types of memories in the computer. Functions of
the memory unit are −
It stores all the data and the instructions
required for processing.
It stores intermediate results of
processing.
It stores the final results of processing
before these results are released to an
output device.
All inputs and outputs are transmitted
through the main memory.

Control Unit
This unit controls the operations of all parts of
the computer but does not carry out any actual
data processing operations.
Functions of this unit are −
It is responsible for controlling the
transfer of data and instructions among
other units of a computer.
It manages and coordinates all the units
of the computer.
It obtains the instructions from the
memory, interprets them, and directs the
operation of the computer.
It communicates with Input/Output
devices for transfer of data or results
from storage.
It does not process or store data.
ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit)
This unit consists of two subsections namely,
Arithmetic Section
Logic Section

Arithmetic Section
Function of arithmetic section is to perform
arithmetic operations like addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division. All complex
operations are done by making repetitive use of
the above operations.

Logic Section
Function of logic section is to perform logic
operations such as comparing, selecting,
matching, and merging of data.

Computer - Input Devices

Following are some of the important input
devices which are used in a computer −
Keyboard
Mouse
Joy Stick
Light pen
Track Ball
Scanner
Graphic Tablet
Microphone
Magnetic Ink Card Reader(MICR)
Optical Character Reader(OCR)
Bar Code Reader
Optical Mark Reader(OMR)

Keyboard
Keyboard is the most common and very popular
input device which helps to input data to the
computer. The layout of the keyboard is like that
of traditional typewriter, although there are some
additional keys provided for performing
additional functions.

Keyboards are of two sizes 84 keys or 101/102

keys, but now keyboards with 104 keys or 108
keys are also available for Windows and Internet.
The keys on the keyboard are as follows −
[Link] Keys & Description

Typing Keys

1 These keys include the letter keys (A-Z)

and digit keys (09) which generally give
the same layout as that of typewriters.

Numeric Keypad

It is used to enter the numeric data or

2 cursor movement. Generally, it consists
of a set of 17 keys that are laid out in
the same configuration used by most
adding machines and calculators.

Function Keys
The twelve function keys are present on
3 the keyboard which are arranged in a
row at the top of the keyboard. Each
function key has a unique meaning and
is used for some specific purpose.

Control keys
These keys provide cursor and screen
control. It includes four directional
4 arrow keys. Control keys also include
Home, End, Insert, Delete, Page Up,
Page Down, Control(Ctrl), Alternate(Alt),
Escape(Esc).

Special Purpose Keys

Keyboard also contains some special
5 purpose keys such as Enter, Shift, Caps
Lock, Num Lock, Space bar, Tab, and
Print Screen.

Mouse
Mouse is the most popular pointing device. It is a
very famous cursor-control device having a small
palm size box with a round ball at its base, which
senses the movement of the mouse and sends
corresponding signals to the CPU when the
mouse buttons are pressed.
Generally, it has two buttons called the left and
the right button and a wheel is present between
the buttons. A mouse can be used to control the
position of the cursor on the screen, but it cannot
be used to enter text into the computer.

Advantages
Easy to use
Not very expensive
Moves the cursor faster than the arrow
keys of the keyboard.

Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used
to move the cursor position on a monitor screen.
It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both
lower and upper ends. The lower spherical ball
moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in
all four directions.
The function of the joystick is similar to that of a
mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games.

Light Pen
Light pen is a pointing device similar to a pen. It
is used to select a displayed menu item or draw
pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a
photocell and an optical system placed in a small
tube.

When the tip of a light pen is moved over the

monitor screen and the pen button is pressed, its
photocell sensing element detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to
the CPU.

Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in
notebook or laptop computer, instead of a
mouse. This is a ball which is half inserted and by
moving fingers on the ball, the pointer can be
moved.
Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball
requires less space than a mouse. A track ball
comes in various shapes like a ball, a button, or a
square.

Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like
a photocopy machine. It is used when some
information is available on paper and it is to be
transferred to the hard disk of the computer for
further manipulation.

Scanner captures images from the source which

are then converted into a digital form that can be
stored on the disk. These images can be edited
before they are printed.
Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device which converts analog
information into digital form. Digitizer can
convert a signal from the television or camera
into a series of numbers that could be stored in a
computer. They can be used by the computer to
create a picture of whatever the camera had been
pointed at.

Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics

Tablet as it converts graphics and pictorial data
into binary inputs. A graphic tablet as digitizer is
used for fine works of drawing and image
manipulation applications.

Microphone
Microphone is an input device to input sound that
is then stored in a digital form.

The microphone is used for various applications

such as adding sound to a multimedia
presentation or for mixing music.
Magnetic Ink Card Reader (MICR)
MICR input device is generally used in banks as
there are large number of cheques to be
processed every day. The bank's code number
and cheque number are printed on the cheques
with a special type of ink that contains particles
of magnetic material that are machine readable.

This reading process is called Magnetic Ink

Character Recognition (MICR). The main
advantages of MICR is that it is fast and less
error prone.

Optical Character Reader (OCR)

OCR is an input device used to read a printed
text.
OCR scans the text optically, character by
character, converts them into a machine readable
code, and stores the text on the system memory.

Bar Code Readers

Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar
coded data (data in the form of light and dark
lines). Bar coded data is generally used in
labelling goods, numbering the books, etc. It may
be a handheld scanner or may be embedded in a
stationary scanner.

Bar Code Reader scans a bar code image,

converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is
then fed to the computer that the bar code reader
is connected to.

Optical Mark Reader (OMR)

OMR is a special type of optical scanner used to
recognize the type of mark made by pen or
pencil. It is used where one out of a few
alternatives is to be selected and marked.

It is specially used for checking the answer

sheets of examinations having multiple choice
questions.

Computer - Output Devices

Following are some of the important output
devices used in a computer.
Monitors
Graphic Plotter
Printer

Monitors
Monitors, commonly called as Visual Display Unit
(VDU), are the main output device of a computer.
It forms images from tiny dots, called pixels that
are arranged in a rectangular form. The
sharpness of the image depends upon the
number of pixels.
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for
monitors.
Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
Flat-Panel Display

Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

The CRT display is made up of small picture
elements called pixels. The smaller the pixels, the
better the image clarity or resolution. It takes
more than one illuminated pixel to form a whole
character, such as the letter ‘e’ in the word help.
A finite number of characters can be displayed on
a screen at once. The screen can be divided into
a series of character boxes - fixed location on the
screen where a standard character can be
placed. Most screens are capable of displaying
80 characters of data horizontally and 25 lines
vertically.
There are some disadvantages of CRT −
Large in Size
High power consumption

Flat-Panel Display Monitor

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video
devices that have reduced volume, weight and
power requirement in comparison to the CRT. You
can hang them on walls or wear them on your
wrists. Current uses of flat-panel displays include
calculators, video games, monitors, laptop
computer, and graphics display.
The flat-panel display is divided into two
categories −
Emissive Displays − Emissive displays
are devices that convert electrical energy
into light. For example, plasma panel and
LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
Non-Emissive Displays − Non-emissive
displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source
into graphics patterns. For example, LCD
(Liquid-Crystal Device).

Printers
Printer is an output device, which is used to print
information on paper.
There are two types of printers −
Impact Printers
Non-Impact Printers

Impact Printers
Impact printers print the characters by striking
them on the ribbon, which is then pressed on the
paper.
Characteristics of Impact Printers are the
following −
Very low consumable costs
Very noisy
 Useful for bulk printing due to low cost
There is physical contact with the paper
to produce an image
These printers are of two types −
Character printers
Line printers
Character Printers
Character printers are the printers which print one
character at a time.
These are further divided into two types:
Dot Matrix Printer(DMP)
Daisy Wheel
Dot Matrix Printer
In the market, one of the most popular printers is
Dot Matrix Printer. These printers are popular
because of their ease of printing and economical
price. Each character printed is in the form of
pattern of dots and head consists of a Matrix of
Pins of size (5*7, 7*9, 9*7 or 9*9) which come out
to form a character which is why it is called Dot
Matrix Printer.

Advantages
Inexpensive
Widely Used
Other language characters can be printed
Disadvantages
 Slow Speed
Poor Quality
Daisy Wheel
Head is lying on a wheel and pins corresponding
to characters are like petals of Daisy (flower)
which is why it is called Daisy Wheel Printer.
These printers are generally used for word-
processing in offices that require a few letters to
be sent here and there with very nice quality.

Advantages
More reliable than DMP
Better quality
Fonts of character can be easily changed
Disadvantages
Slower than DMP
Noisy
More expensive than DMP
Line Printers
Line printers are the printers which print one line
at a time.
These are of two types −
Drum Printer
Chain Printer
Drum Printer
This printer is like a drum in shape hence it is
called drum printer. The surface of the drum is
divided into a number of tracks. Total tracks are
equal to the size of the paper, i.e. for a paper
width of 132 characters, drum will have 132
tracks. A character set is embossed on the track.
Different character sets available in the market
are 48 character set, 64 and 96 characters set.
One rotation of drum prints one line. Drum
printers are fast in speed and can print 300 to
2000 lines per minute.

Advantages
Very high speed
Disadvantages
Very expensive
Characters fonts cannot be changed
Chain Printer
In this printer, a chain of character sets is used,
hence it is called Chain Printer. A standard
character set may have 48, 64, or 96 characters.
Advantages
Character fonts can easily be changed.
Different languages can be used with the
same printer.
Disadvantages
Noisy

Non-impact Printers
Non-impact printers print the characters without
using the ribbon. These printers print a complete
page at a time, thus they are also called as Page
Printers.
These printers are of two types −
 Laser Printers
Inkjet Printers
Characteristics of Non-impact Printers
Faster than impact printers
They are not noisy
High quality
Supports many fonts and different
character size
Laser Printers
These are non-impact page printers. They use
laser lights to produce the dots needed to form
the characters to be printed on a page.

Advantages
Very high speed
Very high quality output
Good graphics quality
Supports many fonts and different
character size
Disadvantages
Expensive
Cannot be used to produce multiple
copies of a document in a single printing
Inkjet Printers
Inkjet printers are non-impact character printers
based on a relatively new technology. They print
characters by spraying small drops of ink onto
paper. Inkjet printers produce high quality output
with presentable features.

They make less noise because no hammering is

done and these have many styles of printing
modes available. Color printing is also possible.
Some models of Inkjet printers can produce
multiple copies of printing also.
Advantages
High quality printing
More reliable
Disadvantages

Expensive as the cost per page is high

Slow as compared to laser printer

Computer - Memory
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to
store data and instructions. Computer memory is
the storage space in the computer, where data is
to be processed and instructions required for
processing are stored. The memory is divided
into large number of small parts called cells.
Each location or cell has a unique address, which
varies from zero to memory size minus one. For
example, if the computer has 64k words, then
this memory unit has 64 * 1024 = 65536 memory
locations. The address of these locations varies
from 0 to 65535.
Memory is primarily of three types −
Cache Memory
Primary Memory/Main Memory
Secondary Memory

Cache Memory
Cache memory is a very high speed
semiconductor memory which can speed up the
CPU. It acts as a buffer between the CPU and the
main memory. It is used to hold those parts of
data and program which are most frequently
used by the CPU. The parts of data and programs
are transferred from the disk to cache memory by
the operating system, from where the CPU can
access them.

Advantages
The advantages of cache memory are as follows
−
Cache memory is faster than main
memory.
It consumes less access time as
compared to main memory.
 It stores the program that can be
executed within a short period of time.
It stores data for temporary use.

Disadvantages
The disadvantages of cache memory are as
follows −
Cache memory has limited capacity.
It is very expensive.

Primary Memory (Main Memory)

Primary memory holds only those data and
instructions on which the computer is currently
working. It has a limited capacity and data is lost
when power is switched off. It is generally made
up of semiconductor device. These memories are
not as fast as registers. The data and instruction
required to be processed resides in the main
memory. It is divided into two subcategories RAM
and ROM.

Characteristics of Main Memory

These are semiconductor memories.
It is known as the main memory.
Usually volatile memory.
Data is lost in case power is switched off.
It is the working memory of the computer.
Faster than secondary memories.
 A computer cannot run without the
primary memory.

Secondary Memory
This type of memory is also known as external
memory or non-volatile. It is slower than the main
memory. These are used for storing
data/information permanently. CPU directly does
not access these memories, instead they are
accessed via input-output routines. The contents
of secondary memories are first transferred to
the main memory, and then the CPU can access
it. For example, disk, CD-ROM, DVD, etc.

Characteristics of Secondary Memory

These are magnetic and optical
memories.
It is known as the backup memory.
It is a non-volatile memory.
Data is permanently stored even if power
is switched off.
It is used for storage of data in a
computer.
Computer may run without the secondary
memory.
Slower than primary memories.

Random Access Memory

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the internal
memory of the CPU for storing data, program,
and program result. It is a read/write memory
which stores data until the machine is working.
As soon as the machine is switched off, data is
erased.

Access time in RAM is independent of the

address, that is, each storage location inside the
memory is as easy to reach as other locations
and takes the same amount of time. Data in the
RAM can be accessed randomly but it is very
expensive.
RAM is volatile, i.e. data stored in it is lost when
we switch off the computer or if there is a power
failure. Hence, a backup Uninterruptible Power
System (UPS) is often used with computers. RAM
is small, both in terms of its physical size and in
the amount of data it can hold.
RAM is of two types −
Static RAM (SRAM)
Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

Static RAM (SRAM)

The word static indicates that the memory
retains its contents as long as power is being
supplied. However, data is lost when the power
gets down due to volatile nature. SRAM chips use
a matrix of 6-transistors and no capacitors.
Transistors do not require power to prevent
leakage, so SRAM need not be refreshed on a
regular basis.
There is extra space in the matrix, hence SRAM
uses more chips than DRAM for the same
amount of storage space, making the
manufacturing costs higher. SRAM is thus used
as cache memory and has very fast access.

Characteristic of Static RAM

Long life
No need to refresh
Faster
Used as cache memory
Large size
Expensive
High power consumption

Dynamic RAM (DRAM)

DRAM, unlike SRAM, must be continually
refreshed in order to maintain the data. This is
done by placing the memory on a refresh circuit
that rewrites the data several hundred times per
second. DRAM is used for most system memory
as it is cheap and small. All DRAMs are made up
of memory cells, which are composed of one
capacitor and one transistor.

Characteristics of Dynamic RAM

Short data lifetime
Needs to be refreshed continuously
Slower as compared to SRAM
Used as RAM
Smaller in size
Less expensive
Less power consumption
 Computer - Read Only
Memory
ROM stands for Read Only Memory. The memory
from which we can only read but cannot write on
it. This type of memory is non-volatile. The
information is stored permanently in such
memories during manufacture. A ROM stores
such instructions that are required to start a
computer. This operation is referred to as
bootstrap. ROM chips are not only used in the
computer but also in other electronic items like
washing machine and microwave oven.

Let us now discuss the various types of ROMs

and their characteristics.

MROM (Masked ROM)

The very first ROMs were hard-wired devices that
contained a pre-programmed set of data or
instructions. These kind of ROMs are known as
masked ROMs, which are inexpensive.

PROM (Programmable Read Only

Memory)
PROM is read-only memory that can be modified
only once by a user. The user buys a blank PROM
and enters the desired contents using a PROM
program. Inside the PROM chip, there are small
fuses which are burnt open during programming.
It can be programmed only once and is not
erasable.

EPROM (Erasable and

Programmable Read Only
Memory)
EPROM can be erased by exposing it to ultra-
violet light for a duration of up to 40 minutes.
Usually, an EPROM eraser achieves this function.
During programming, an electrical charge is
trapped in an insulated gate region. The charge is
retained for more than 10 years because the
charge has no leakage path. For erasing this
charge, ultra-violet light is passed through a
quartz crystal window (lid). This exposure to
ultra-violet light dissipates the charge. During
normal use, the quartz lid is sealed with a sticker.

EEPROM (Electrically Erasable and

Programmable Read Only
Memory)
EEPROM is programmed and erased electrically.
It can be erased and reprogrammed about ten
thousand times. Both erasing and programming
take about 4 to 10 ms (millisecond). In EEPROM,
any location can be selectively erased and
programmed. EEPROMs can be erased one byte
at a time, rather than erasing the entire chip.
Hence, the process of reprogramming is flexible
but slow.

Advantages of ROM
The advantages of ROM are as follows −
Non-volatile in nature
 Cannot be accidentally changed
Cheaper than RAMs
Easy to test
More reliable than RAMs
Static and do not require refreshing
Contents are always known and can be
verified

Computer - Motherboard
The motherboard serves as a single platform to
connect all of the parts of a computer together. It
connects the CPU, memory, hard drives, optical
drives, video card, sound card, and other ports
and expansion cards directly or via cables. It can
be considered as the backbone of a computer.

Features of Motherboard
A motherboard comes with following features −
Motherboard varies greatly in supporting
various types of components.
Motherboard supports a single type of
CPU and few types of memories.
Video cards, hard disks, sound cards
have to be compatible with the
motherboard to function properly.
 Motherboards, cases, and power
supplies must be compatible to work
properly together.

Popular Manufacturers
Following are the popular manufacturers of the
motherboard.
Intel
ASUS
AOpen
ABIT
Biostar
Gigabyte
MSI

Description of Motherboard
The motherboard is mounted inside the case and
is securely attached via small screws through
pre-drilled holes. Motherboard contains ports to
connect all of the internal components. It
provides a single socket for CPU, whereas for
memory, normally one or more slots are
available. Motherboards provide ports to attach
the floppy drive, hard drive, and optical drives via
ribbon cables. Motherboard carries fans and a
special port designed for power supply.
There is a peripheral card slot in front of the
motherboard using which video cards, sound
cards, and other expansion cards can be
connected to the motherboard.
On the left side, motherboards carry a number of
ports to connect the monitor, printer, mouse,
keyboard, speaker, and network cables.
Motherboards also provide USB ports, which
allow compatible devices to be connected in
plug-in/plug-out fashion. For example, pen drive,
digital cameras, etc.
 Computer - Memory Units
Memory unit is the amount of data that can be
stored in the storage unit. This storage capacity
is expressed in terms of Bytes.
The following table explains the main memory
storage units −

[Link]. Unit & Description

Bit (Binary Digit)

A binary digit is logical 0 and 1
1 representing a passive or an active
state of a component in an electric
circuit.

Nibble
2
A group of 4 bits is called nibble.

Byte

3 A group of 8 bits is called byte. A byte

is the smallest unit, which can
represent a data item or a character.

Word
A computer word, like a byte, is a
group of fixed number of bits
processed as a unit, which varies from
computer to computer but is fixed for
each computer.
4
The length of a computer word is
called word-size or word length. It may
be as small as 8 bits or may be as long
as 96 bits. A computer stores the
information in the form of computer
words.
The following table lists some higher storage
units −

[Link]. Unit & Description

Kilobyte (KB)
1
1 KB = 1024 Bytes

Megabyte (MB)
2
1 MB = 1024 KB

GigaByte (GB)
3
1 GB = 1024 MB

TeraByte (TB)
4
1 TB = 1024 GB

PetaByte (PB)
5
1 PB = 1024 TB

Computer - Ports
A port is a physical docking point using which an
external device can be connected to the
computer. It can also be programmatic docking
point through which information flows from a
program to the computer or over the Internet.

Characteristics of Ports
A port has the following characteristics −
External devices are connected to a
computer using cables and ports.
Ports are slots on the motherboard into
which a cable of external device is
plugged in.
 Examples of external devices attached
via ports are the mouse, keyboard,
monitor, microphone, speakers, etc.

Let us now discuss a few important types of

ports −

Serial Port
Used for external modems and older
computer mouse
Two versions: 9 pin, 25 pin model
Data travels at 115 kilobits per second

Parallel Port
Used for scanners and printers
Also called printer port

25 pin model
IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

PS/2 Port
Used for old computer keyboard and
mouse
Also called mouse port
 Most of the old computers provide two
PS/2 port, each for the mouse and
keyboard
IEEE 1284-compliant Centronics port

Universal Serial Bus (or USB) Port

It can connect all kinds of external USB
devices such as external hard disk,
printer, scanner, mouse, keyboard, etc.
It was introduced in 1997.
Most of the computers provide two USB
ports as minimum.
Data travels at 12 megabits per seconds.
USB compliant devices can get power
from a USB port.

VGA Port
Connects monitor to a computer's video
card.
It has 15 holes.
Similar to the serial port connector.
However, serial port connector has pins,
VGA port has holes.

Power Connector
Three-pronged plug.
Connects to the computer's power cable
that plugs into a power bar or wall
socket.

Firewire Port
Transfers large amount of data at very
fast speed.
Connects camcorders and video
equipment to the computer.
 Data travels at 400 to 800 megabits per
seconds.
Invented by Apple.
It has three variants: 4-Pin FireWire 400
connector, 6-Pin FireWire 400 connector,
and 9-Pin FireWire 800 connector.

Modem Port
Connects a PC's modem to the telephone
network.

Ethernet Port
Connects to a network and high speed
Internet.

Connects the network cable to a

computer.
This port resides on an Ethernet Card.
Data travels at 10 megabits to 1000
megabits per seconds depending upon
the network bandwidth.

Game Port
Connect a joystick to a PC

Now replaced by USB

Digital Video Interface, DVI port

Connects Flat panel LCD monitor to the
computer's high-end video graphic cards.
Very popular among video card
manufacturers.

Sockets
Sockets connect the microphone and
speakers to the sound card of the
computer.
 Computer - Hardware
Hardware represents the physical and tangible
components of a computer, i.e. the components
that can be seen and touched.
Examples of Hardware are the following −
Input devices − keyboard, mouse, etc.
Output devices − printer, monitor, etc.
Secondary storage devices − Hard disk,
CD, DVD, etc.
Internal components − CPU,
motherboard, RAM, etc.

Relationship between Hardware

and Software
Hardware and software are mutually
dependent on each other. Both of them
must work together to make a computer
produce a useful output.
Software cannot be utilized without
supporting hardware.
 Hardware without a set of programs to
operate upon cannot be utilized and is
useless.
To get a particular job done on the
computer, relevant software should be
loaded into the hardware.
Hardware is a one-time expense.
Software development is very expensive
and is a continuing expense.
Different software applications can be
loaded on a hardware to run different
jobs.
A software acts as an interface between
the user and the hardware.
If the hardware is the 'heart' of a
computer system, then the software is
its 'soul'. Both are complementary to
each other.

Computer - Software
Software is a set of programs, which is designed
to perform a well-defined function. A program is a
sequence of instructions written to solve a
particular problem.
There are two types of software −
System Software
Application Software

System Software
The system software is a collection of programs
designed to operate, control, and extend the
processing capabilities of the computer itself.
System software is generally prepared by the
computer manufacturers. These software
products comprise of programs written in low-
level languages, which interact with the hardware
at a very basic level. System software serves as
the interface between the hardware and the end
users.
Some examples of system software are
Operating System, Compilers, Interpreter,
Assemblers, etc.

Here is a list of some of the most prominent

features of a system software −
Close to the system
Fast in speed
Difficult to design
Difficult to understand
Less interactive
Smaller in size
Difficult to manipulate
Generally written in low-level language

Application Software
Application software products are designed to
satisfy a particular need of a particular
environment. All software applications prepared
in the computer lab can come under the category
of Application software.
Application software may consist of a single
program, such as Microsoft's notepad for writing
and editing a simple text. It may also consist of a
collection of programs, often called a software
package, which work together to accomplish a
task, such as a spreadsheet package.
Examples of Application software are the
following −
Payroll Software
Student Record Software
Inventory Management Software
 Income Tax Software
Railways Reservation Software
Microsoft Office Suite Software
Microsoft Word
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft PowerPoint

Features of application software are as follows −

Close to the user
Easy to design
More interactive
Slow in speed
Generally written in high-level language
Easy to understand
Easy to manipulate and use
Bigger in size and requires large storage
space

Computer - Number System

When we type some letters or words, the
computer translates them in numbers as
computers can understand only numbers. A
computer can understand the positional number
system where there are only a few symbols called
digits and these symbols represent different
values depending on the position they occupy in
the number.
The value of each digit in a number can be
determined using −
The digit
The position of the digit in the number
The base of the number system (where
the base is defined as the total number
 of digits available in the number system)

Decimal Number System

The number system that we use in our day-to-day
life is the decimal number system. Decimal
number system has base 10 as it uses 10 digits
from 0 to 9. In decimal number system, the
successive positions to the left of the decimal
point represent units, tens, hundreds, thousands,
and so on.
Each position represents a specific power of the
base (10). For example, the decimal number 1234
consists of the digit 4 in the units position, 3 in
the tens position, 2 in the hundreds position, and
1 in the thousands position. Its value can be
written as

(1 x 1000)+ (2 x 100)+ (3 x 10)+ (4 x

(1 x 103)+ (2 x 102)+ (3 x 101)+ (4 x l
1000 + 200 + 30 + 4
1234

As a computer programmer or an IT professional,

you should understand the following number
systems which are frequently used in computers.

[Link]. Number System and Description

Binary Number System

1
Base 2. Digits used : 0, 1

Octal Number System

2
Base 8. Digits used : 0 to 7

Hexa Decimal Number System

3 Base 16. Digits used: 0 to 9, Letters
used : A- F

Binary Number System

Characteristics of the binary number system are
as follows −

Uses two digits, 0 and 1

Also called as base 2 number system
Each position in a binary number
represents a 0 power of the base (2).
Example 20
Last position in a binary number
represents a x power of the base (2).
Example 2x where x represents the last
position - 1.

Example
Binary Number: 101012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 101012 ((1 x 24) + (0 x 23) + (1 x 22) +

1 (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 101012 (16 + 0 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

2

Step 101012 2110

3

Note − 101012 is normally written as 10101.

Octal Number System

Characteristics of the octal number system are
as follows −
Uses eight digits, 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7
Also called as base 8 number system
Each position in an octal number
represents a 0 power of the base (8).
Example 80
 Last position in an octal number
represents a x power of the base (8).
Example 8x where x represents the last
position - 1

Example
Octal Number: 125708
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Octal Decimal Number

Number

Step 125708 ((1 x 84) + (2 x 83) + (5 x 82) +

1 (7 x 81) + (0 x 80))10

Step 125708 (4096 + 1024 + 320 + 56 +

2 0)10

Step 125708 549610

3

Note − 125708 is normally written as 12570.

Hexadecimal Number System

Characteristics of hexadecimal number system
are as follows −
Uses 10 digits and 6 letters, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, 8, 9, A, B, C, D, E, F
Letters represent the numbers starting
from 10. A = 10. B = 11, C = 12, D = 13, E
= 14, F = 15
Also called as base 16 number system
Each position in a hexadecimal number
represents a 0 power of the base (16).
Example, 160
Last position in a hexadecimal number
represents a x power of the base (16).
Example 16x where x represents the last
position - 1
Example
Hexadecimal Number: 19FDE16
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 19FDE16 ((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (F x

1 162) + (D x 161) + (E x 160))10

((1 x 164) + (9 x 163) + (15 x

Step
19FDE16 162) + (13 x 161) + (14 x
2
160))10

Step 19FDE16 (65536+ 36864 + 3840 + 208

3 + 14)10

Step 19FDE16 10646210

4

Note − 19FDE16 is normally written as 19FDE.

Computer - Number
Conversion
There are many methods or techniques which
can be used to convert numbers from one base
to another. In this chapter, we'll demonstrate the
following −
Decimal to Other Base System
Other Base System to Decimal
Other Base System to Non-Decimal
Shortcut method - Binary to Octal
Shortcut method - Octal to Binary
Shortcut method - Binary to Hexadecimal
Shortcut method - Hexadecimal to Binary

Decimal to Other Base System

Step 1 − Divide the decimal number to be
converted by the value of the new base.
Step 2 − Get the remainder from Step 1 as the
rightmost digit (least significant digit) of the new
base number.
Step 3 − Divide the quotient of the previous divide
by the new base.
Step 4 − Record the remainder from Step 3 as the
next digit (to the left) of the new base number.
Repeat Steps 3 and 4, getting remainders from
right to left, until the quotient becomes zero in
Step 3.
The last remainder thus obtained will be the Most
Significant Digit (MSD) of the new base number.

Example
Decimal Number: 2910
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 29 / 2 14 1

Step 2 14 / 2 7 0

Step 3 7/2 3 1

Step 4 3/2 1 1

Step 5 1/2 0 1

As mentioned in Steps 2 and 4, the remainders

have to be arranged in the reverse order so that
the first remainder becomes the Least Significant
Digit (LSD) and the last remainder becomes the
Most Significant Digit (MSD).
Decimal Number : 2910 = Binary Number : 111012.

Other Base System to Decimal

System
Step 1 − Determine the column (positional) value
of each digit (this depends on the position of the
digit and the base of the number system).
Step 2 − Multiply the obtained column values (in
Step 1) by the digits in the corresponding
columns.
Step 3 − Sum the products calculated in Step 2.
The total is the equivalent value in decimal.

Example
Binary Number: 111012
Calculating Decimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Decimal Number

Number

Step 111012 ((1 x 24) + (1 x 23) + (1 x 22) +

1 (0 x 21) + (1 x 20))10

Step 111012 (16 + 8 + 4 + 0 + 1)10

2

Step 111012 2910

3

Binary Number : 111012 = Decimal Number : 2910

Other Base System to Non-

Decimal System
Step 1 − Convert the original number to a decimal
number (base 10).
Step 2 − Convert the decimal number so obtained
to the new base number.

Example
Octal Number : 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step 1 - Convert to Decimal

 Step Octal Number Decimal Number

Step 1 258 ((2 x 81) + (5 x 80))10

Step 2 258 (16 + 5)10

Step 3 258 2110

Octal Number : 258 = Decimal Number : 2110

Step 2 - Convert Decimal to Binary

Step Operation Result Remainder

Step 1 21 / 2 10 1

Step 2 10 / 2 5 0

Step 3 5/2 2 1

Step 4 2/2 1 0

Step 5 1/2 0 1

Decimal Number : 2110 = Binary Number : 101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to Octal

Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of
three (starting from the right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of three binary digits
to one octal digit.

Example
Binary Number : 101012
Calculating Octal Equivalent −
 Step Binary Number Octal Number

Step 1 101012 010 101

Step 2 101012 28 58

Step 3 101012 258

Binary Number : 101012 = Octal Number : 258

Shortcut Method ─ Octal to Binary

Step 1 − Convert each octal digit to a 3-digit
binary number (the octal digits may be treated as
decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups
(of 3 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example
Octal Number : 258
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Octal Number Binary Number

Step 1 258 210 510

Step 2 258 0102 1012

Step 3 258 0101012

Octal Number : 258 = Binary Number : 101012

Shortcut Method ─ Binary to

Hexadecimal
Step 1 − Divide the binary digits into groups of
four (starting from the right).
Step 2 − Convert each group of four binary digits
to one hexadecimal symbol.

Example
Binary Number : 101012
Calculating hexadecimal Equivalent −

Step Binary Hexadecimal

Number Number

Step 101012 0001 0101

1

Step 101012 110 510

2

Step 101012 1516

3

Binary Number : 101012 = Hexadecimal Number :

1516

Shortcut Method - Hexadecimal to

Binary
Step 1 − Convert each hexadecimal digit to a 4-
digit binary number (the hexadecimal digits may
be treated as decimal for this conversion).
Step 2 − Combine all the resulting binary groups
(of 4 digits each) into a single binary number.

Example
Hexadecimal Number : 1516
Calculating Binary Equivalent −

Step Hexadecimal Binary

Number Number

Step 1516 110 510

1

Step 1516 00012 01012

2

Step 1516 000101012

3
Hexadecimal Number : 1516 = Binary Number :
101012

Computer - Data and

Information
Data can be defined as a representation of facts,
concepts, or instructions in a formalized manner,
which should be suitable for communication,
interpretation, or processing by human or
electronic machine.
Data is represented with the help of characters
such as alphabets (A-Z, a-z), digits (0-9) or
special characters (+,-,/,*,<,>,= etc.)

What is Information?
Information is organized or classified data, which
has some meaningful values for the receiver.
Information is the processed data on which
decisions and actions are based.
For the decision to be meaningful, the processed
data must qualify for the following
characteristics −
Timely − Information should be available
when required.
Accuracy − Information should be
accurate.
Completeness − Information should be
complete.
Data Processing Cycle
Data processing is the re-structuring or re-
ordering of data by people or machine to increase
their usefulness and add values for a particular
purpose. Data processing consists of the
following basic steps - input, processing, and
output. These three steps constitute the data
processing cycle.

Input − In this step, the input data is

prepared in some convenient form for
processing. The form will depend on the
processing machine. For example, when
electronic computers are used, the input
data can be recorded on any one of the
several types of input medium, such as
magnetic disks, tapes, and so on.
Processing − In this step, the input data
is changed to produce data in a more
useful form. For example, pay-checks
can be calculated from the time cards, or
a summary of sales for the month can be
calculated from the sales orders.
Output − At this stage, the result of the
proceeding processing step is collected.
The particular form of the output data
 depends on the use of the data. For
example, output data may be pay-checks
for employees.

Computer - Networking
A computer network is a system in which
multiple computers are connected to each other
to share information and resources.

Characteristics of a Computer
Network
Share resources from one computer to
another.
Create files and store them in one
computer, access those files from the
other computer(s) connected over the
network.
Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax
machine to one computer within the
network and let other computers of the
network use the machines available over
the network.
Following is the list of hardware's required to set
up a computer network.
Network Cables
Distributors
 Routers
Internal Network Cards
External Network Cards

Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers.
The most commonly used cable is Category 5
cable RJ-45.

Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via
a serial port but if we need to connect many
computers to produce a network, this serial
connection will not work.

The solution is to use a central body to which

other computers, printers, scanners, etc. can be
connected and then this body will manage or
distribute network traffic.

Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the
central point among computers and other
devices that are a part of the network. It is
equipped with holes called ports. Computers and
other devices are connected to a router using
network cables. Now-a-days router comes in
wireless modes using which computers can be
connected without any physical cable.

Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a
computer without which a computer cannot be
connected over a network. It is also known as the
network adapter or Network Interface Card (NIC).
Most branded computers have network card pre-
installed. Network cards are of two types: Internal
and External Network Cards.

Internal Network Cards

Motherboard has a slot for internal network card
where it is to be inserted. Internal network cards
are of two types in which the first type uses
Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI)
connection, while the second type uses Industry
Standard Architecture (ISA). Network cables are
required to provide network access.

External Network Cards

External network cards are of two types: Wireless
and USB based. Wireless network card needs to
be inserted into the motherboard, however no
network cable is required to connect to the
network.

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card is easy to use and connects via USB
port. Computers automatically detect USB card
and can install the drivers required to support the
USB network card automatically.
 Computer - Operating
System
The Operating System is a program with the
following features −
An operating system is a program that
acts as an interface between the
software and the computer hardware.
It is an integrated set of specialized
programs used to manage overall
resources and operations of the
computer.
It is a specialized software that controls
and monitors the execution of all other
programs that reside in the computer,
including application programs and other
system software.
Objectives of Operating System
The objectives of the operating system are −
To make the computer system
convenient to use in an efficient manner.
To hide the details of the hardware
resources from the users.
To provide users a convenient interface
to use the computer system.
To act as an intermediary between the
hardware and its users, making it easier
for the users to access and use other
resources.
To manage the resources of a computer
system.
To keep track of who is using which
resource, granting resource requests,
and mediating conflicting requests from
different programs and users.
To provide efficient and fair sharing of
resources among users and programs.
Characteristics of Operating
System
Here is a list of some of the most prominent
characteristic features of Operating Systems −
Memory Management − Keeps track of
the primary memory, i.e. what part of it is
in use by whom, what part is not in use,
etc. and allocates the memory when a
process or program requests it.
Processor Management − Allocates the
processor (CPU) to a process and
deallocates the processor when it is no
longer required.
Device Management − Keeps track of all
the devices. This is also called I/O
controller that decides which process
gets the device, when, and for how much
time.
File Management − Allocates and de-
allocates the resources and decides who
gets the resources.
Security − Prevents unauthorized access
to programs and data by means of
passwords and other similar techniques.
Job Accounting − Keeps track of time
and resources used by various jobs
and/or users.
Control Over System Performance −
Records delays between the request for
a service and from the system.
Interaction with the Operators −
Interaction may take place via the
console of the computer in the form of
instructions. The Operating System
acknowledges the same, does the
corresponding action, and informs the
operation by a display screen.
Error-detecting Aids − Production of
dumps, traces, error messages, and
 other debugging and error-detecting
methods.
Coordination Between Other Software
and Users − Coordination and
assignment of compilers, interpreters,
assemblers, and other software to the
various users of the computer systems.

Computer - Internet and

Intranet
In this chapter, we will see what is Internet and
Intranet, as well as discuss the similarities and
differences between the two.

Internet
It is a worldwide/global system of interconnected
computer networks. It uses the standard Internet
Protocol (TCP/IP). Every computer in Internet is
identified by a unique IP address. IP Address is a
unique set of numbers (such as [Link])
which identifies a computer’s location.
A special computer DNS (Domain Name Server)
is used to provide a name to the IP Address so
that the user can locate a computer by a name.
For example, a DNS server will resolve a name
[Link] to a particular
IP address to uniquely identify the computer on
which this website is hosted.
Internet is accessible to every user all over the
world.

Intranet
Intranet is the system in which multiple PCs are
connected to each other. PCs in intranet are not
available to the world outside the intranet.
Usually each organization has its own Intranet
network and members/employees of that
organization can access the computers in their
intranet.

Each computer in Intranet is also identified by an

IP Address which is unique among the computers
in that Intranet.
Similarities between Internet and
Intranet
Intranet uses the internet protocols such
as TCP/IP and FTP.
Intranet sites are accessible via the web
browser in a similar way as websites in
the internet. However, only members of
Intranet network can access intranet
hosted sites.
In Intranet, own instant messengers can
be used as similar to yahoo
messenger/gtalk over the internet.

Differences between Internet and

Intranet
Internet is general to PCs all over the
world whereas Intranet is specific to few
PCs.
Internet provides a wider and better
access to websites to a large population,
whereas Intranet is restricted.
Internet is not as safe as Intranet.
Intranet can be safely privatized as per
the need.

How to Buy a Computer?

In this chapter, we will supply relevant
information to help you buy a desktop on
component by component basis. As desktops are
highly customizable, so it is better to learn about
the main parts and then visit the manufacturer or
the retailer shop or site, instead of just looking at
some specific model directly.
Popular desktop brands are Dell, Lenovo, HP and
Apple. Always compare the desktops based on
their specifications and base price.
Monitor

Size − It is the diagonal size of the LCD

screen. Larger the area, bigger the
picture screen. A bigger picture is
preferable for movie watching and
gaming. It will increase the productivity
as well.
Resolution − This is the number of pixels
on the screen. For example, 24inch
display is 1920x1200 (width by length)
and 22-inch display is 1680x1050. High
resolution provides better picture quality
and a nice gaming experience.
Inputs − Now-a-days monitors can
accept inputs from cable as well apart
from the computer. They can also have
USB ports.
Stand − Some monitors come with
adjustable stands while some may not.
Recommended − 24 Inch LCD.

Operating System
Operating System is the main software
of the computer as everything will run on
it in one form or other.
There are primarily three choices:
Windows, Linux, Apple OS X.
 Linux is free, however people generally
do not use it for home purpose.
Apple OS X works only on Apple
desktops.
Windows 7 is very popular among
desktop users.
Most of the computers come pre-
equipped with Windows 7 Starter edition.
Windows 8 is recently introduced and is
available in the market.
Windows 7 and Windows 8 come in
multiple versions from starter, home
basic, home premium, professional,
ultimate, and enterprise editions.
As the edition version increases, their
features list and price increases.
Recommended − Windows 7 Home
Premium.

Optical Drive (CD / DVD / Blu-ray)

Optical drive is the drive on a computer,

which is responsible for using CD, DVD,
and Blu-ray discs.
Now-a-days, DVD burners are industry
standards.
DVD Burner can burn CD, DVD and play
them.
DVD Burner is cheaper than Blu-ray
drives.
 Blu-ray drives can play HD movies but are
costlier component.
Recommended − DVD Burner.

Memory

RAM is considered as Computer Memory

as the performance of a computer is
directly proportional to its memory and
processor.
Today's software and operating system
require high memory.
Today commonly used RAM is DDR3,
which operates at 1066Mhz.
As per Windows 7, 1 GB is the minimum
RAM required to function properly.
Recommended − 4 GB.

Hard Drive
 Hard disk is used for storage purpose.
Higher the capacity, more data you can
save in it.
Now-a-days computers are equipped
with 500GB hard drive, which can be
extended to 2TB.
Most hard drives in desktop operate at
the standard performance speed of
7200RPM.
Recommended − 500GB.

CPU

Frequency (GHz) − This determines the

speed of the processor. More the speed,
better the CPU.
Cores − Now-a-days CPUs come with
more than one core, which is like having
more than one CPU in the computer.
Programs which can take advantage of
multi-core environment will run faster on
such machines.
Brand − Intel or AMD. Both are
equivalent. Intel is in lead.
Cache − Higher the L1, L2 cache, better
the CPU performance.
Recommended − Intel Core i3-3225 3.30
GHz Processor.

Computer - Available
Courses
Nowadays, various types of courses are provided
by educational institutions. Following are some
of the common as well as important courses.
 Duration Minimum
Course Name
(years) Qualification

B.C.A Bachelor of 3 10+2

Computer
Applications

P.G.D.C.A Post 1 Graduation

Graduate
Diploma in
Computer
Applications

M.C.A Master of 3 Graduation

Computer
Applications

[Link]. Bachelor of 3 10+2

(CS) Science
(Computer
Science)

[Link]. Master of 2 Graduation

(CS) Science
(Computer
Science)

[Link]. Bachelor of 4 10+2

(CSE) Technology
(Computer
Science and
Engineering)

[Link]. Bachelor of 4 10+2

(IT) Technology
(Information
Technology)

[Link]. Master of 2 [Link] / B.E.

(CSE) Technology
(Computer
Science and
Engineering)

[Link]. Master of 2 [Link] / B.E

(IT) Technology
 (Information
Technology)

B.E. Bachelor of 4 10+2

(CSE) Engineering
(Computer
Science and
Engineering)

B.E.(IT) Bachelor of 4 10+2

Engineering
(Information
Technology)

Diploma Courses
Apart from regular degree courses, computer
centers also provide short-term courses (from 3
months to 1 year). Online courses on topics such
as Computer Basics, Programming Languages
Training, Hardware Training, and Network
Certifications are also gaining in popularity.