FARM STRUCTURES

1.0 Importance of structures

Many of the production process on the farm must be carried on under more closely controlled
conditions than is possible outside, in order to maximize output. Animals often need to be
protected from wind, rain, sun and be kept in conditions where diseases and parasites are more
readily controlled. Stored crops for either foods or sale must be protected from damaging
elements of water, excessive temperatures, insects and fungi. Farm machinery must be protected
from rain and dirt and kept under conditions where corrosions and general degradation is kept to
a minimum.
Farm structures form an important part of any farming enterprise and are required for the
following:
 The farmer and his employees require dwellings.
 Farm animals, including poultry are housed part-time or full time in buildings.
 Buildings are required for certain activities such as shearing, milking, sorting and grading
of farm products.
 Buildings are necessary for the storage of farming requirements and implements, farm
produce, feeds and food.
 Buildings or rooms are necessary for a workshop and for office from which the farm is
managed.
 Farm structures/buildings represent a production or storage cost. Just as a return from
feed or labour cost is expected, a benefit from a building investment should also be
anticipated
Benefits that a building should provide:
 Facilities for an efficient operation.
 An environment providing good health and sanitary conditions
 Comfortable surroundings for both stock and workers
 Safe conditions for both stock and workers.
 Desirable conditions for production and storage.
1.1 Functional Requirements
1.1.2 Animals
Protection may be required from wind , sun, rain, disease ,parasite , wild beasts and
thieves .The housing should be
 Hygienic i.e. has good drainage and cleanliness.
 Well ventilated.
 Constructed so that all fodder can be eaten and not wasted.
 Permit complete utilization of manure.

The simplest contraction is a traditional enclosure made of posts and branches, usually built
round a large shady tree or big rock. The disadvantages are:
 Not very good protection against wind, sun and rain.
 The earth floor cannot be kept clean and this provides a good breeding ground for
diseases and parasites and
 It is not possible to make good manure for subsequent use on the fields.

An improved construction will have the following characteristics;

 A dry well drained site;
 A wind proof wall on the side from which the wind usually blows;
 A roof to keep off the rain and sun
 A hard impervious floor, sloped for adequate drainage manure, covered with a thin layer of
straw or litter.
 Walls high enough and strong enough to keep the animals in (allowance must be made for
the building up of the manure level between clean out periods)
 A large space between tops of the walls and roof for good ventilation, adequate light and for
the animals to look out.
 A water trough
 A trough for food
 An adjacent food store and
 An adjacent dung heap, down slope and downwind of the animal house
 Economical use of local materials, with size appropriate to the function of the building.
1.2 Planning, Design and Erection of Farm Buildings
Buildings can last for 30 years or more. Errors in the planning, design or erection may therefore
be a source of danger for many years. The options of erecting buildings or altering existing ones,
and the nature of such buildings, rest primarily on the shoulders of the farmer. Therefore,
initially, the farmer must find out all he/she can in connection with the buildings he/she intends
to erect or alter. The farmer should obtain answers to the following:-
 How much will it cost?
 Will funds for the project be readily available?
 Will the quantity and or quality of the product be increased as a result of the project?
 Will it save labour?
 Will it make management easier?
 And most important, what net increase in income will be likely from the project?
When constructing a farm structure/building, the expense must be justified.

1.3 Design characteristics of farm structures

A number of factors must be considered in planning a building to obtain the greatest number of
benefits at a reasonable cost. Some of these design factors are:-
1. The functional requirements for the enterprise e.g. space, temperature, light, physical
protection, sanitation and safety.
2. The efficiency of the system including mechanization, centralized operation, circular travel,
and bulk handling of materials.
3. Structural design adequate to sustain the loads to which the building will be subjected and
one in which both the original cost and maintenance costs are reasonable and one, which will
provide the desirable length of life.
4. The suitability of materials; including such characteristics as durability, fire resistance, cost,
upkeep, ease of cleaning, insulating value and appearance.
5. Economy of construction. Costs are reduced by choosing module (standard) dimensions,
standardize, material and components and profitable sub-assemblies.
6. Flexibility of design that will allow production methods for the proposed enterprise to be
altered or a completely new enterprise to be established with minimum expense. Examples of
 planned flexibility include such features as large doors, level floors, truss construction and a
large electrical service designed to allow the addition of several circuits.

STRUCTURAL REQUIREMENTS
3.1 Foundations
These should be in firm subsoil. All loose disturbed earth, stones, vegetation and rubbish should
be removed. Where there is no likelihood of frost, greater depth is no advantage as there will be
no damage due to expansion when the water freezes frost heave.
If the site has the like hood of heavy rains wash, adequate drains must be installed round the
foundation to prevent them being undermined. On soft water – logged sites, the foundations
should be larger or possibly a reinforced concrete raft should be used, but as this will be
expensive al alternative site should be chosen if possible. See fig below

Figure 1: Earth foundation faced with stones

3.2 Walls
Walls may be divided into two types:
(a) Load-bearing walls that support loads from floors and roof in addition to their own weight
and resist side-pressure from wind and, in some cases, from stored material or objects within the
building.
(b) Non-load-bearing walls that carry no floor or roof loads.
- Each type may be further divided into external or enclosing walls, and internal dividing
walls.
- The term ‘partition’ is applied to walls, either load-bearing or non-load-bearing, that divides
the space within a building into rooms.
- Good-quality walls provide strength and stability, weather resistance, fire resistance, thermal
insulation and acoustic insulation.
- The building should be designed so that the walls are only loaded vertically. Unless specially
made they are not capable of taking side loads.

Types of building wall

While there are various ways to construct a wall and many different materials can be used, walls
can be divided into four main groups.
Masonry walls- where the wall is built of individual blocks of materials such as brick, clay,
concrete block or stone, usually in horizontal courses bonded together with some form of mortar.
Several earth-derived products, either air-dried or fired, are reasonable in cost and well suited to
the climate.
Monolithic walls- where the wall is built of a material placed in forms during construction. The
traditional earth wall and the modern concrete wall are examples. Earth walls are inexpensive
and durable if placed on a good foundation and protected from rain by rendering or wide roof
overhangs.
Frame walls- where the wall is constructed as a frame of relatively small members, usually of
timber, at close intervals, which, together with facing or sheathing on one or both sides, form a
load-bearing system. Off cuts is a low-cost material to use for a frame-wall covering.
Membrane walls- where the wall is constructed as a sandwich of two thin skins or sheets of
reinforced plastic, metal, asbestos cement or other suitable material bonded to a core of foamed
plastic to produce a thin wall element with high strength and low weight. Another form of
construction suitable for framed or earth buildings consists of relatively light sheeting secured to
the face of the wall to form the enclosed element. These are generally termed ‘claddings’
Factors that determine the type of wall to be used are:
- The materials available at a reasonable cost;
- The availability of craft workers capable of using the materials in the best way;
- Climate;
- The use of the building and functional requirements.
The height of walls should allow people to walk freely and work in a room without knocking
their heads on the ceiling, beams, etc. In dwellings with ceilings, 2.4 metres is a suitable height.
Low roofs or ceilings in a house create a depressing atmosphere and tend to make the rooms
warmer in hot weather.

3.3 Roof.
Roof provides the necessary protection from rain, sun, wind, heat and cold. The integrity of the
roof is important for the structure of the building itself, as well as for the occupants and the
goods stored within the building. The roof structure must be designed to withstand the dead load
imposed by the roofing and framing, as well as the forces of wind and, in some areas, snow or
drifting dust. The roofing must be leak proof and durable and may have to satisfy other
requirements such as fire-resistance, good thermal insulation or a high thermal capacity.
There is a wide variety of roof shapes, frames and coverings from which to choose. The choice is
related to factors such as the size and use of the building, its anticipated life and appearance, and
the availability and cost of materials. Roofs may be classified in three ways, according to:
1. The plane of the surface, i.e. whether it is horizontal or pitched.
2. The structural principles of the design, i.e. the manner in which the forces set up by external
load is resolved within the structure.
3. The span.

Cable
Cables, cords, strings, ropes and wires are flexible because of their small lateral dimensions in
relation to their length and have therefore very limited resistance to bending. Cables are the most
efficient structural elements since they allow very fiber of the cross section to resist the applied
loads up to any allowable stress. Their applications are however, limited by the fact that they can
be used only in tension.

Column
Rods or bars under compression are the basis for vertical structural elements such as columns,
stanchions, piers and pillars. They are often used to transfer load effects from beams, slabs and
roof trusses to the foundations.

Ties and Struts

When bars are connected with pin joints and the resulting structure loaded at the joints, a
structural framework called a pin jointed truss or lattice frame is obtained. The members are only
subjected to axial loads and members in tension are called ties while members in compression
are called struts.
Beam
A beam is a member used to resist load acting across its longitudinal axis by transferring the
effect over a distance between supports - referred to as the span. The span that a beam can
usefully cover is limited due to the self-weight of the beam, i.e., it will eventually reach a length
when it is only capable o
Floors
Building floors may be as simple as compacting the soil present on the site before the building is
constructed, or as complex as attractively finished hardwood parquet. A well chosen, well-built
floor offers protection from vermin and rodents, is easy to clean, and is dry, durable and a
valuable asset to a building. For special circumstances, it may be designed to be washable,
particularly attractive, thermally insulated, sloped to a drain or perfectly smooth and level. For
farm buildings, including homes, simple floors offering hard, durable surfaces at ground level
(grade) are probably adequate for the vast majority of situations. Floors may be built at ground
level, i.e. on the soil within the building, in which case they are called ‘solid’ or ‘grade’ floors, or
they may be supported on joists and beams, in which case they are called ‘suspended’ or ‘above-
grade’ floors. The finished level of a solid floor should be at least 150 mm above the outside
ground level as a protection against flooding. The topsoil should be removed and replaced with
coarse material before the actual floor slab is constructed.
3.4 CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS.
Earth as a building material
Earth is one of the oldest materials used for building construction in rural areas. Advantages of
earth as a building material are:
 - It is resistant to fire.
- It is cheaper than most alternative wall materials and is readily available at most building
sites.
- It has very high thermal capacity that enables it to keep the inside of a building cool when
the outside is hot and vice versa.
- It is a good noise absorbent.
- It is easy to work using simple tools and skills.
These qualities encourage and facilitate self-help and community participation in house building.
Despite its good qualities, the material has the following weaknesses as a building material:
- It has low resistance to water penetration resulting in crumbling and structural failure.
- It has a very high shrinkage/ swelling ratio resulting in major structural cracks when
exposed to changing weather conditions.
- It has low resistance to abrasion and requires frequent repairs and maintenance when
used in building construction.
However, there are several ways to overcome most of these weaknesses and make earth a
suitable building material for many purposes.
Stone
Stone is suitable for a permanent structure , but unless it is available practically on the site
with skilled stone masons to do the work, it is likely to be a rather expensive choice for a
complete structure.
Mud
Mud blocks
A suitable mixture of clay and sand must be used which does not crack or shrink on drying.
Chopped grass or straw is often added to improve the strength.

Mud bricks
These are smaller, but are easier to handle and lay. The brick size should be thought out carefully
or some standard size used. This is important so that the brick work can be bonded correctly i.e.
no joints in line in any part of the structure.
Suitable moulds can be made with hardwood or softwood with metal edges but they must be
accurate. The bricks can be made straight on the ground in rows. The surface of the ground
should be hard and flat. After a few days drying the bricks should be turned to dry the other side.
The drying area must be protected from animals and children to prevent damage to the soft
bricks. By making special moulds, shaped bricks are easily made e.g. rounded nose bricks for
corners.

Burned Bricks
Suitable clay contains hydrous aluminum silicate with quartz sand and iron oxide. They are more
brittle than mud bricks, but are harder and not so easily damaged by rain. They are made in the
same way as the mud bricks and dried thoroughly before being burned in the kiln. When the kiln
is built it is plastered on the outside with mud and fired for a few days, the precise time
depending on the particular clay type. The bricks may be used as soon as they have cooled down
but if used with cement mortar must be thoroughly wetted first.
Concrete blocks
A mix of one part cement to two parts of clean sand to three parts gravel or aggregate by
volume 1:3:4 is also acceptable. The mix should be as dry as possible, approximately half the
weight of water as cement should be used. A wet sloppy mix will result in very weak misshapen
blocks. The blocks are made in a block in a block – making machine, the simplest being steel
mould. Careful compacting is necessary. The blocks should be kept damp for at least four days
after molding, premature drying out will cause a great reduction in strength.
Corrugated iron
This can be nailed to a wooden frame and gives a quick light strong construction. For walls and
roofs the wood frame carries the load.
Pise or rammed earth
Damp earth is rammed in a simple mould. When full, the mould is moved along or up the wall
and the process repeated. The finished wall is plastered with mud on the inside and outside and is
quite durable if protected from rain.
Concrete moulds
A similar construction using concrete gives a much stronger construction ., especially if steel
reinforcing rods are placed at highly stressed points .The moulds must be left for a number of
days before removing them up or along . The finished wall will be 0.1 to 0.15m thick for up to
4m high.
Wattle and daub
A wood pole frame with lighter woven infill is plastered with mud inside and outside. Mud from
a nearby anthill is very suitable. This type of structures is very durable if it has an ant course,
stone foundations and if it the rain is kept off by overhang.
Veneer walls
These are composite structures using a combination of methods e.g. burnt bricks on the outside
for good weather protection and mud bricks inside. The actual combination depends on the
building’s functional combination, local costs and preferences.
Concrete
This is a mixture of coarse aggregate, sand and cement. For the best results, the components of
the mix should be weighed out carefully: 3:2:1 (aggregate, sand, cement) is suitable for
foundations, floors and walls, while 4:2:2 is required for beams and lintels. The weight of water
in the mix should be approximately half of cement used.

Bags of cement should be stored under dry conditions, not on damp ground outside. All the
components of the concrete mix should be cool before mixing commences because hot aggregate
and hot water will cause subsequent reductions. As the concrete is placed it should be carefully
compacted, particularly if reinforcing rods are used to avoid spaces or voids in the final product.
Only mixing up a batch size that can be used in about 30–45 minutes, do not use rewetted
concrete as the final strength will be very low. The concrete should not be allowed to dry out
after placing for at least one week. Spraying with water or covering with damp sacks are
commonly used methods. The reinforcing materials are usually steel rods which can be hand
bent into required shapes and wired together. Spacers are used in the mould to ensure the
reinforcing remains in the correct position while the grease, paint and loose rust. A thin layer of
tenacious rust is not at all harmful.

Mortar
This is sand /cement mix 4:1 which is used to bind bricks together. Often lime is added or a
proprietary plasticizing agent for easier handling. The bricks or blocks should be wetted to
 ensure a good bond. All the joints should be filled properly on laying, not filled in afterwards.
Outside joints can be pointed for attractive finish.
Timber
Many types can be used depending on the availability in a particular area .See Table below. The
timber must be properly seasoned and if used structurally must not have too many defects. If
knots are present, the timber must be arranged so that the knots are on the compression side of
the beam. The grain of the timber should follow the length of a beam, and must not slope out
greater than 8:1 i.e. 8:1 or less. Joints used in timber construction on the farm are usually steel
nails or bolts for small structures. Nails must not be placed in line on the grain, since this would
make the wood split. For longer structures, bolted timber connectors are used for reliable strong
joints. Here a bolt is passed through a large steel washer, then through the first piece of timber to
be joined. Between this piece of timber and the next, a timber connector is placed. This bears
sharp points on each side, which when the bolt is passed through, grip into both pieces of timber.
The bolt is held in position beyond the second piece of timber, by a nut. Timber must be
protected from damage caused by insects and fungi. This can be achieved by ensuring the timber
used for the building is kept dry and is treated chemically before being used. The timber can be
kept dry by paying particular attention to the damp proof course and detailed door, window and
roof design to prevent the rain water from entering.

The chemical treatment is best for protection against:

a) Fungi: copper sulphate; sodium dichromate and arsenic pentoxide and
b) Insects; tri–butyl tin oxide and penta chorophenol
These materials are usually available under various trade names e.g. Rentokil, Wsycomol. Other
materials creosote, tar and paint are also used, but these are more weather protection. The
application method used are : paint or spraying , vacuum/pressure ; dip diffusion; sap re–
placement Boucherie and various soaking methods . Many of the chemicals are poisonous to
plants and animals and even the ash from burnt oddments can be dangerous. When timber is
stored on site, it must be stacked in dry with the boards separated to give good air circulation to
prevent unsightly staining and warping.
Table 1: Some types of timber in Kenya and their uses

Name Density Termite and fungi Use

 Kg/m3 resistance
African Pencil 417–805 Young – V. good ,old poor Building ;floor
cedar 577–801 Poor Paneling ; furniture ;cabinets
African satinwood Joinery ; furniture
417–567 Poor Paneling ;furniture ;frames
Cypress 417–801 Termite –v. good , fungi – Paneling ;flooring; furniture
East Africa poor
camphor 817–1041 v. good Furniture; general joinery

East African olive 817–1041 v. good First class furniture

Floor blocks
Elgon olive 417–567 poor Interior lining; joinery; utility
817 –1041 poor furniture
Meru oak 417– 567 poor Paneling ;furniture; cabinet;
Museringu flooring; frames; doors
Mutondo 577–801 v. good Building; joinery; furniture;
handles
Mvule Building ;joinery; plywood ;
417–567 poor furniture; door frames

Pine 417–567 poor

Podo

Metals
Common metals used in buildings are
Steel bolts , nails , brackets , hinges, reinforcing galvanized iron roofs , walls ( zinc coated
steel ) aluminum sheets roofs , walls copper sheets roofs , walls. Exposed steel components
must be painted to prevent rusting. Different metals must not come into contact otherwise severe
corrosion will result e.g. do not nail aluminium sheets with steel nails, use aluminium nails or
the special connectors provided by the manufactures . Galvanized components are the best
protection against weathering. Corrugated sheets are much stronger than flat sheets; .The fixing
should pass through the top of the channel, not the bottom.

Plastics
Most plastics degrade fairly rapidly in bright sunlight and so are not used widely in tropical
countries as in temperature countries for external use. They are widely used on internal fittings
and as foams of fillers for insulation.

CONSTRUCTION TECHNIQUES
Site selection for farm building
Farm buildings constitute an integral part of the whole farm business and claim quite a
substantial fraction of the farm’s fixed capital. Whenever the material used, farm buildings
initially require a suitable site. It is important to take the following into account when selecting a
good site for erecting farm buildings.
i. Soil type
Soil should be free draining and stable and fairly deep. As much as possible, the farm
buildings should be erected in places where the land is poor and unproductive for crop
growing. Fertile and cultivatable land should be left for crops and only rocky or stony
parts of the farm reserved for houses. However, this factor should be borne in mind along
with that of catering for future extensions as the farm expands.
ii. The gradient
For the purpose of facilitating free flow of rain water and natural drainage the houses are
better situated on raised ground. Gently sloping ground is the best. Areas to avoid are low
swampy places and slopes.
iii. Water sources
A permanent water supply is an important factor to consider, because if the farm buildings
in question are for livestock, water should be near enough. The buildings for farm workers
and the farmer’s family also need to be situated near water supply to meet their domestic
needs.

iv. Security
 For specific farm enterprises connected with poultry, pigs, rabbits, or vegetables, the farm
buildings needs to be centrally located near the farmer’s house because such aspects of the
farm require frequent attention and are open to theft.

v. Power supply
This is an essential consideration particularly in buildings where different types of machinery
are being installed e.g. milking machines, fridges, pumps, mills.
vi. Accessibility
This is important for transportation and marketing purposes. This factor takes care of the
delivery of various farm inputs to the storage houses for feeds, seeds, fertilizers, drugs
and tractor fuel. It also enables a farmer to transport his farm products from the stores to
the market without difficulty.
vii. Prevailing wind direction
Strong wind has some adverse effect on the feeding habits of animals. In order to ensure
against this, the buildings should be located on the leeside of the farm. Windbreaks could be
planted on the windward side.
viii. Position of the sun
Hot sun rays are accompanied by high temperatures which affects the animals’ appetite,
with the consequence of lower production. Animal feed more during cooler hours of the
morning and evening than during hot hours of midday and later afternoon. A sufficient
supply of sunlight to poultry houses in the morning and evening also keep egg production
up.
ix. The farmer’s personal whims
The majority of people tend to attach special importance to the scenery and social
amenities in the locality. The choice of a site for farm houses should not ignore the fact
that some farmers wish to settle on a hilltop or elsewhere in the farm for their own
reasons.

Site Preparation
After a suitable site has been chosen, all rubbish and vegetation should be cleared. The site can
be marked out using poles and a tape. Reference pegs can be positioned in relation to the to the
main datum line that was placed at the particular orientation required i.e. north –south. Right
angles can be made by sitting along a square, or better by marking out a 3, 4, 5 triangle. The
final layout can be checked by measuring the diagonals; they should be the same. More
complicated layouts can be broken down into a series of triangles, square and rectangles.
The levels may be established from some datum point of the site e.g. height of roads, streams bed
or existing building. A quickest level or a Cowley or a theodolite, which are telescope – type
surveying instruments can be used with an accurately calibrated staff. These are expensive
instruments required well trained operators. For smaller buildings these are various simple
methods which if used carefully can give good results. The reference pegs are banged into the
ground until the sight line is in its true position.

The concerns of the building are then built up set the level (floor of DPC) and checked for
the vertical at A and B .The middle of the walls is then filled in using a line . From then on
each course is built up the same amount (about 0.5 m for brick work ).If care is taken the
building should still the level at eaves height . The use of a storey rod, giving the height of the
finished building with suitable graduations, will give better accuracy.

Floors
For many farm buildings the most suitable material will be concrete. This type of floor is hard,
durable and easy to clean. The components of concrete are cement, sand and coarse aggregate.
The mixing proportion of these components varies according to what the mix is to be used for.
For instance, the recommended ratio for making foundations, floors and walls is 1:2:3. A suitable
material for making beams, lintels and pillars should have a mixing proportion of 1:1:2. The
floor thickness depends on the amount of weight such as floor is expected to carry. A lightly
loaded floor requires concrete of 5cm thickness on properly compacted fill. The floor for animal
houses and stores for heavy items need to 10 – 15cm thick. For large workshops and rooms with
heavy machinery installations the floors should be not less than 20cm thick. Where possible, the
latter should be reinforced with steel bars near the top and bottom layers.
For highly loaded floors, 50mm thick on a compacted base will be adequate. For heavily loaded
floors (animal housing), 100–150 mm thick, while for heavy machinery 200mm thick or more
and maybe with reinforcing as well. The reinforcing rods should be near the bottom and top, not
in the middle where they are not very effective.
Before laying a damp membrane (PVC sheet) May be laid or poison sprinkled to reduce the
chance of termite invasion, depending on the requirements of the building.

Procedure for Making Concrete Floors

1. When the building comes up to the ground level, lay the hard core. This is composed
mainly of big stones.
2. On top of hard core lay a binding layer which is sand alone or, more commonly, site
murram. Compact this layer well enough to get rid of empty spaces between the boulders.
3. On top of the binding layer pour site concrete (or overset concrete) whose mix is 1:2:4
4. After this put a layer of cement/sand mixture with proportions of 1:8. Introduce a little
water to make it semi-dry.
5. If the floor is to be smooth, put only a coat of wetted cement, finishing it with a steel
float. For most farm buildings for animals, floors are complete with a rough finish to
prevent slipping.

Height Proportions
The dimensions of a building, particularly the floor space, depend on the number and type of
stock a farmer prefers to keep. The height above the ground is also influenced by the extent of
the house on the floor. The height should be proportional to the floor space. However the height
of the rise above the wall plate depends on the width of the house (span) and nature of thatching
materials. For example grass and tiles require sharper roof than those of corrugated iron sheet.

Walls
These should be built vertical and straight. Curved walls are not as strong and give trouble later
when plastering and fitting out the building. Holes may be left in the walls and floors for the
services (water, electricity to be installed.
Windows and doors
The frames, made from treated wood or metal, should be built into the main structure and
anchored securely.

Roof
The tops of the wall should incorporate a wall plate. This is either wood or concrete, built into
the top of the wall wire and metal straps. The roof structure should be securely fixed to the wall
plate to prevent the roof being blown off in storms. Roofs have a base of trusses which are
responsible for supporting the thatching material. Poor or weak trusses can cause the roof to
collapse, especially if the roof is heavy. The truss is made of a tie beam (or cross tie) as a base,
2 rafter above the base to form a triangle structure, and a number of struts which serve as
supporters. A truss may be made of wood or steel bars, depending on the purpose of the house on
which is to be used. For example most trusses for workshops are made of steel. Trusses for fairly
large houses are usually made on the ground before they are raised on top of walls. After the
trusses are positioned, purlins are nailed horizontally on the rafters. In case of tiles or tiles, the
rise or pitch should be half the length of the span of house in question. For corrugated iron
sheets the rise should be a quarter of the span length.

Tiles can be locally made, but must be of clay that is suitable for waterproof pottery. Much
closer supervision is required in their production than for bricks in order to obtain a satisfactory
product.

Thatch may be made using local grasses. A steep roof pitch of over 40 o is necessary to allow for
easy shedding of water .If the building has an ant course the thatch will have a good life.

FARMSTEAD PLANNING

The layout and type of buildings can be decided upon only after all the factors affecting the farm
as a production unit have been considered. Each case must be considered individually to arrive
at the optimum solution for the particular circumstances. If the farm is to produce milk for the
local town, the number of cows and followers that can be supported from the farm can be
estimated. This will dictate the size of the grain store, fodder store, milking unit, manure heap,
water and drain requirements etc.

The layout of the individual components of this system should take into account the movement
of materials, animals and men (called work study) to provide for the most efficient layout. The
movement required may be:

Daily e.g. cows to field

Weekly e.g. concentrated food from outside suppliers

Monthly e.g. delivery of tractor fuel

Intermittent e.g. young calves to the main herd and seasonal e.g. crops from field to store

The space between the buildings and the type of surface for the farm roads must take into
account the transport system to be used, both internal and external transport

If an ox cart is used, the turn round space will not necessarily be the same as for a small tractor
and two wheeled trailer or a larger articulated lorry. The strength and smoothness of the surface
will also have to be selected to suit, large requiring hard smooth strong surface.

When choosing the site of the buildings the following also should be taken into account;

Soil type; natural drainage; slope; erosion control measurers; water supply; power supply; ease
of prevailing and direction; position of sun at midday; distances from local amenities ; local
government regulations ; social requirements and personal whims of farmer.

A detailed map of the proposed area will be required showing all the relevant information.

The farmstead may be concentrated around the farm court, or be more widely scattered.
Whichever farmstead type chosen, it must be convenient for the management of the farm,
depending on the different varieties of crops grown and livestock reared. The piggery should not
be near the farmhouse as this could cause an unpleasant stench. Similarly, a milking shed should
not be sited near a cattle boma or a spraying crush as this may cause tainting of the milk. The
feed store should be situated close to the milk shed for ease of feeding.

The traditional lifestyle of the rural communities of tropical Africa is undergoing many changes.
People are becoming better educated, coming into contact with other cultures and technologies,
and gradually losing their knowledge of the traditional crafts and agricultural methods that were
practiced by their ancestors. This is an encouraging change from the traditional way of life to a
more modern way of life with a desire for appropriate dwellings.

Planning the design and construction of a rural dwelling requires decisions with which the rural
family must live for a long time, perhaps a lifetime. These decisions are likely to be highly
personal because of individual preferences, financial situation, family size, location and other
circumstances. There are a number of factors to be considered and questions to be answered
before building a home. This includes space requirements, together with ideas for planning rural
dwellings. Farmstead planning gives a deal of opportunity for designs to evolve through the
cooperation of the rural family, craftsmen and, perhaps, engineers and architects.

The planning will involve careful evaluation of factors such as traditional family culture and
social life, climate, government regulations, available materials and the skills of local craftsmen.

The planning process will result in unique designs that may differ greatly from one area to
another. However, only a planning process that aims to produce designs that are general in terms
of layout, materials, construction and details – within a cultural and environmental context – can
contribute to the development of an indigenous building tradition that pursues the native
architectural heritage.

Space requirements
In planning a rural home, adequate space must be allowed for each of the daily activities. This is
not so much related to total space as it is to such things as door widths and heights, corridor
widths, adequate space for a bed or a table and chairs and clearance for a door to swing open. It
is essential for these dimensions to be checked in every design, as very minimal changes can
often make a considerable difference in terms of convenience. ‘Functional Requirements for
different rooms and spaces’, provides a guide to space requirements.
Family cultural and social requirements
Various tribes and ethnic groups with different cultural and religious backgrounds have
developed distinctive customs and social requirements. An analysis of the rural family’s daily
life, including present requirements and future plans, will help in selecting the important factors
for designing an appropriate dwelling house. A number of questions relevant to rural home
design are listed below:
Family size:
How many persons will live in the house initially and in the future? What are the family
relationships: age, sex, marital status?
Sleeping:
Are separate bedrooms and/or houses needed for the husband and wife (wives)? Where do small
children sleep: in the parent’s room or a separate room nearby? Where do the older children
sleep: in a separate room or a separate house? Are children of different sexes segregated?
Cooking/eating:
Does cooking take place inside or outside the house, or in a separate structure? Do cooking and
eating take place in the same area? Is there a separation between women and men, children or
visitors, during mealtimes? What kinds of water resources are available?
Store:
How much food is stored, and where? What types of storage conditions are required? What
other items need to be stored – fuel, water, implements?
Resting/conversation:
What kind of room is required for resting and conversation: an outside verandah or separate
shelter, or an inside kitchen or living room? Are men, women and children separated during
these activities?
Special requirements of rural dwellings
Rural families accustomed to working with nature have different needs in a dwelling from those
of families in an urban situation. Although many of the basic requirements are the same for both
rural and urban homes, additional factors must be considered when designing a rural dwelling.
These include:
- A site that is well drained but suitable for a well and, where necessary, either a latrine or a
septic tank and drainage field. A home should never be built on a flood plain.
- How the dwelling relates to other rural buildings to provide a view of the access road and
the farmstead.
- The correct orientation of the house to give protection against sun, rain, odour and dust,
while providing for ventilation, a view and easy access. An east–west orientation to provide
the maximum shade is a general rule. However, it may sometimes be desirable to modify
this to take advantage of a prevailing wind for better ventilation or to allow more sun
penetration into the house in cool highland areas.
- A design that will enable the house to be built in stages according to the availability of
finances.
- Flexibility in the arrangement of rooms to allow for alternative uses and future expansion.
- A kitchen large enough to allow for space consuming activities, such as cutting meat after
slaughter and preparation of homegrown vegetables.
- A separate entrance from the backyard into the kitchen area. A small verandah at the rear of
the home where some of the kitchen work can be carried out, and perhaps rural/work clothes
can be stored.
- A verandah large enough to allow for activities such as eating, resting and receiving visitors.
The verandah, along with windows and ventilation openings, may need to be protected
against insects with mosquito netting.

FENCES
The layout of the fences on the farm must be carefully worked out after deciding what the fence
is supposed to keep in or out. Sizes of gates for access, permanent or temporary or easily
movable stock fences must be carefully chosen.
The general uses of fencing to a farmer are as follows.
- They help in the control of pests and diseases such as worms and ticks and the diseases they
transmit
- They assist in controlling grazing, hence preventing overgrazing. Strip grazing is easier with
fencing.
- They help to avoid boundary disputes
- They act as windbreaks in certain cases
- They keep out intruders and wild animal from the farm
- They facilitate mixed farming, enabling a farmer to grow crops without the interference of
livestock
- Farm management and planning is made easy: crop rotation is more readily administered.
- Fences can confine a particular class of animals in one area: e.g. claves can be separated
from adults; healthy animals can e separated from those which are sick and bulls can be kept
separately from the heifers.
- Fences control water supply for livestock so that they will only be able to drink water when
the farmer thinks it is necessary.

Types of fences
A wide range of materials may be used in the construction of fences. Wooden fences are perhaps
the most common. Living fences of hedges are also popular. Wire fences, galvanized to prevent
corrosion, are being widely adopted. These fences may be electrified. Concrete and stone are
used. In some instance, a trench fence may be constructed.
Wire fences
Plain woven or barbed wire may in the construction of this type of fence. Though dangerous to
animals, barbed wire is very effective for controlling their movement
Electric fences
This fencing is the best for controlling animals, particularly if strip grazing is practiced. The
source of electricity may be from the main or from a battery. These fences are suitable for
containing cows , horses , mules and pigs , but less for sheep and goats as their coats are thick
and give better insulation .The fence works better under humid conditions . Only an approved
controller must be used, of the type that is on for 1/10 second). This gives animal time to get
away. Continuously charged fences cause the animal to freeze so that it cannot break contact,
which will cause severe discomfort and pain. These fences can be easily moved when required in
another part of the farm.
Concrete or stone fence
These are constructed from concrete blocks or stones, in a similar manner to that described for
concrete walls .They are effective as windbreaks.
Wooden fences
These are frequently the most economical fences to construct, particularly in areas where timber
is plentiful, e.g. in the Londian area. Attack by termites or fungi are the main problem and they
are generally less durable than other types of fencing.

Living fences
Formed from growing trees or shrubs, hedges require minimum capital outlay, but they are slow
to become established and are not always effective in controlling the movement of animals. They
are good windbreaks when mature. Good hedging plants include Kai apple; Mauritius thorn;
bougainvillea and tick berry (Lantana camara)

Trench fence
A trench dug parallel to a fence is an extremely effective way of preventing animals from
straying. Cattle –proof gates consist of a trench with metal pipes laid at close intervals across it.

Fence construction
Equipment
The most important tools used in the building of a fence are : wire pliers ;a claw hammer;
across –cut or bow saw; a wire puller; staples; a post hole digger ; a soil auger; a wood chisel;
mallet; tape measure ;pegs and twine.

Procedure
Firstly, a farmer must ensure that he is fencing his own property .The next step is to clear the
surrounding bush. Locate the corners of the area and make straight lines with twine from corner
to corner. Fix the corner posts, strainers, gates and foot paths. A three – post strainer is preferable
to a two –post type , since this gives greater support to structure .The strainer should be
installed every 250– 400 metres . Standard posts should be fixed at an interval of 4.5–6.0m
apart. In practice they should be at a distance of four to six strides from each other .If droppers
are used for strengthening the fence , then standard posts may be spaced about 15m apart. Fix
the wires, starting from the lower one. The number and docility of the animals to be
contained .Three, four or five strands may be used .See fig 9 for details of fence construction.

Repair and Maintenance

Properly-built and well-maintained fences will give you the most trouble-free service for your
money. A maintenance program is a must. Include some of the following tips in your regular
maintenance program:
- Keep the fence wires properly stretched. Fences will naturally loosen over time or with
seasonal changes. If tighteners are placed in the fence, check at least twice per year. Other
fences may be tightened by resetting or by putting several small kinks or creases in the wire
using pliers, a hammer or special tool designed for this purpose. Splice broken wires when
necessary.
- Repair or replace anchor post assemblies whenever they show signs of weakness. Refasten
loose wires to posts.
- Old woven wire and barbed wire fences which have deteriorated enough to need
replacement can be restored to last for many more years by running an electrified wire on
one or both sides of the fence through offset brackets attached to the old fence. These offset
brackets are made of galvanized high tensile wire and are easily attached to the existing
fence. They should be attached at two-thirds the height of the animals to be controlled, next
to posts where they will be held more securely than sagging on old wires in the center
between two posts.
- Use herbicides or manual clearing to keep weeds and vines from covering fences. Grass and
weeds touching the wire can ground it and make the fence ineffective for controlling
livestock. An inexpensive fence tester should be secured and used frequently to assure
proper functioning of the fence.
- A carpenter’s apron is very handy for holding nails, staples and small tools, and a good pair
of gloves prevents hand injury and helps in gripping wire. Specialized fencing pliers are an
excellent investment for anyone who builds or maintains fences.

PARTICULAR ANIMAL REQUIREMENTS

Milk cows
Milking stall :length 2.24–2.46m , width 0.77 to 0.82 m .There are many layouts used: abreast
; tandem; chute and herringbone , enabling from 45 to 120 cows to be milked per man
respectively with modern machine and management methods .
Fig 1 above illustrates a simple building for dairy cattle .The dairy room must be large enough
to house all the essential dairying equipment. The milking parlour includes a feeding trough and
a channel to keep the dung away from the feeding area. The floor should be constructed of
cement. Calves should be housed in a well – ventilated environment, and the shed illustrated is
open on the side opposite to the prevailing wind. The calf pens must be of sufficient space to
avoid cramping. The floor may be cemented, fitted with a door to avoid entry of pests.
Sheep
Collecting pen: 0.46m2 /animal; catching pen 0.33m2/animal, usually for 10–12 animal size.
These are often circular and about 4.5m diameter, with crowding gates to the dipping tank
which is 3.6 to 6.0m long with a slipway to the deep end, 1.2 to 1.5 m deep and 1.8 to 2.4 m
long leading to the outlet ramp .The dip tank is about 0.6m wide at the top and 0.2 m wide at the
bottom. Tank capacities vary from 900 litres for 400 sheep to 2700 litres or 800 sheep. This
leads to the draining pen, 1.8–.0 m wide, with an area the same as catching pen, with a concrete
floor sloping back to the dipping tanks .Fences should be 0.9 to 1.0 m high. Cattle dipping tanks
are similar, but 3 to 3 times larger, see fig 2 below. Shearing pens are 0.46 -0.56m per animal,
leading to work space of 1.2 x 1.2m per man with the wool room adjacent

1.2 Storage buildings for farm products.

Hay, straw and fodder
The building may simply be a roof on uprights: a dutch barn. The sides may be clad on the side
of the prevailing wind/rain direction on particularly exposed sites.
Crop storage
All farmers need to store their produce, whether they produce them in large or small scale.
Perishable farm produce needs cold storage, but they are expensive to build and maintain hence
not available for small-scale farmers, unless constructed on cooperative basis. He can store
harvested crops in dry form but if the stores do not have certain features, 23% or more of this
produce will be attacked and lost.
Common storage problems
1. Lack of proper facilities, such as stores, bins, bags etc.
2. Lack of technical know how about grain dressing and storing.
3. Shortage of cash to buy grain dressing chemicals.
4. Insect and rodent damage of produce in the field.
5. Deterioration, rotting and fungus attack because of weather or insufficient drying.
Many of these problems can be counteracted by sensible construction, disinfecting and
maintenance of stores, and by adequate drying and protection of the produce. In construction of
farm store, the following features should be borne in mind

Desirable Features of Crop Stores

i. The floor should be raised about 50cm above ground level.
ii. All posts and pillars should have a smooth surface.
 iii. The store should be vermin proof e.g. by metal deflectors on posts about 50cm from the
ground.
iv. Ventilation should be thorough.
v. It should be rain proof.
vi. Security should be good.
vii. All parts of the store should be able to be cleaned easily and with no crevices to hide
pests.

Grain
a. Maize on the cob can be stored in cribs made of local materials .The usual construction is a
cylindrical container standing upright on four poles with a thatched roof. The container is
loosely woven from bamboo or other suitable material to allow free access to the air. The
four poles should be fitted with metal deflectors to prevent vermin and termites from
entering. They are made in sizes ranging from 1 to 2m diameter , 1.5– 2.5m high and hold
about 200kg/m3 depending on the moisture content.
b. Maize grain may be stored in similar containers which are often plastered inside .The grain
capacity is about 750kg/m3. Grain n sacks should be stacked on a dry floor protected from
vermin and damp.
c. Large grain soils can be made by using a wire mesh cylinder with polythene or butyl rubber
sheets; they must be protected from vermin.
d. Large fixed installations use metal silos on proper foundations 4–5 m diameter and 5– m
high.
1.3 Farm Equipments Stores
Simple equipment can be stored under a roof on poles on a harder floor. More complex
equipment needs an enclosed building with good lighting , both natural and artificial ,
preferably with a concrete floor and pit ( properly drained ) and a strong work bench so that
simple machine should be at least 7m x 6m .The building should have a 4.5 m square dished
and drained concrete apron outside for cleaning down the machines. The fuel store should be
sited in a suitable position to give easy access. Larger sites should have a separate workshop
with heating and /or air conditioning, with adjacent rest room and toilets for the workers.
Buildings for processing equipment
These should be designed with the following points in mind
a) Easy access for transport of the crop to and from the buildings
b) Easy access to machinery inside with consideration to movement of produce within the
building;
c) Power suppliers (electricity, gas, water);
d) Ventilation and heating or cooling;
e) Dust control equipment (if necessary)
f) Position of exits in the event of fire and
g) Noise and temperature insulation.

1.4 Buildings for Growing Crops.

The purpose of the building is to give better control of temperature, humidity, light intensity and
duration, atmosphere, and to enable the production of high value crops in or out of season

The simplest is cold frame; a glass or transparent plastic cover over the plants about 0.3 m high.
Glass cloches or transparent plastic machine – planted cloches are also used on a field scale.

The plastic cloches can be cut open when crop growth. They are not reusable as are the glass
ones.
Larger plastic structures can be made which is semi– permanent. They may be of the inflated
type with an air lock (see fig 3 (a), or made of inflated tubes over which the transparent sheet is
draped. Very large structures of the latter type can be made. They are quickly erected with
minimum site preparation.
Other types use a tensioned wire frame with a draped over sheet buried in the ground. The
plastics used have a life of about 2 years only as they are degraded by the ultra violet in the
sun’s rays. But they are relatively cheap and easy erected .See fig 4 (b)

Permanent structures requiring proper site preparation and foundations are made of glass and
wood or aluminum frames. The larger ones can be fitted with heating , cooling , ventilation ,
carbon dioxide enrichment , lighting , soil heating , sterilization systems and watering
systems , so that all pants’ requirements can be closely controlled. These installations can cover
a few hectares but can only be justified for certain high value crops with high level
management.
They may also be built on rails so that they can be moved when the crop gets beyond a certain
critical stage and so become available for the next planting.

ANIMAL HOUSING STRUCTURES

ZERO GRAZING UNIT
Basic (Essential) parts: Basic (Optional) Parts

1. The cubicles 7. The store

2. The walking area 8. The manure storage
3. The feed and water troughs 9. Fodder cutter
4. The milking place 10. Roof water catchment
5. The calf pen 11. Water tank
6. The fodder chopping area 12. A holding crush
Importance of Zero Grazing
 Cows are confined and therefore use most of the energy from feeds for growth and milk
production.
 Saves land for other enterprises by allowing the use of high yielding fodder crops like
Napier.
 Enables on farm clean milk production.
 Good calf rearing is possible
 Manure can be easily collected for the benefit of fodder crops
 The animals are better protected against diseases, especially tick-borne diseases.
 Close observation of the animals is possible, making heat detection and attendance to animals
easier and faster.
 The animals are kept inside which is more secure and protect them from attack by predators
 Little or no time is spent on herding the animals. Therefore labour for other farm task is
saved.

Challenges of Zero Grazing

 Much labour is required to take feed and water to the animals.
 Much capital is required for construction of a ‘zero-grazing unit.
 The possibility that animals are stressed because of too much confinement inside the zero
grazing unit
Because zero-grazing requires a lot of money (capital) for the construction of the unit, it can be
done in steps by first constructing the essential parts of a zero-grazing unit. The optional parts
can then be added as money becomes available

The Cubicles (Resting Area)

Each cow has her own place in the resting area, called cubicle. The cubicles must be covered
with a roof made of iron sheets (Mabati), grass thatch or makuti. The roof must be high enough
so that it cannot be eaten by a cow if it is made of grass or if hay is stored under it.
The measurements of the cubicle are very important. It should not be too small for the cow or too
big to allow the cow to turn around inside the cubicle. The cubicle should be constructed such
that the cow remains clean all the time.
Below is a list of the recommended number of cubicles for a given number of cows
(including followers – heifers or bulls):
Number of Cows: Number of cubicles:
1 cow 2 cubicles
2 cows 3 cubicles
3 cows 5 cubbies
4 cows 6 cubicles
5 cows 7 cubicles
6 cows 9 cubicles

A mineral box can be fixed at the head of each cubicle for individual mineral supply to each
cow. This can limit fighting among cows and between cows and young stock for access to the
mineral
- The recommended measurements for a cubicle are based on pure breed cows (Friesians and
Ayrshires). The reason for this is because pure breeds give the highest economic returns in a
zero-grazing system. They are therefore used as the standard. A cubicle has a length of 210
cm (7ft) and a width of 120 cm (4 ft). Cubicles are separated from each other by two timbers.
The floors of the cubicles are raised and filled with plain soil such as murrum.
- Soft bedding provides comfort to a cow and prevents wounds on its skin. In this way, the
animal has a comfortable place which is cheap and easy to maintain. Do not make the floor
of a cubicle with concrete. I this is done, then fill the cubicles with saw dust.
- The resting area is roofed to provide shelter against rain and sunshine. A neck-pole is fixed
across the cubicle. This prevents the cow from entering too far into the cubicle and ensures
that the urine and dung will drop on the walking area. The cubicle and the cow then remain
clean.
- Young animals should be separated from the milking cows. This will ensure no fighting
occurs between young animals and cows. Cubicles for young animals should be adjusted
according to their size by moving the neck-poles backwards to make the cubicles shorter. An
extra timber can also be added lengthwise to make each cubicle narrower.
The Walking Area
The walking area is about 3 meters wide i.e. between the resting area and there the feed and
water troughs are located. No roofing is required for this area except under very hot conditions
like in the Coastal region. The floor of the working area is made of concrete. This makes it
possible to collect urine and manure. The floor and the cows are also kept clean. The surface of
the floor should be rough so that animals cannot slip on it. But it should be easy to clean. The
floor should slope from the milking place towards urine and dung collecting pit located at one
end of the walking area. The slope should allow for easy cleaning of the milking and walking
area.

The Feed and Water Troughs

- The feed troughs should run along the length of the walking area with a water trough in the
middle. The total length of the feed through should be such that each cow or heifer has two
and a half to three (2.5-3) feet to itself. The water trough should be placed such that both the
young stock and the mature cows have access to it instead of constructing separate trough for
each side (the unit divided to separate young and mature stock). Fighting between young
stock and cows will not occur due to the boundary created between them. Fighting can also
be prevented to constructing vertical poles along the inside of the feed trough at intervals of
2.5 to 3 feet. A horizontal line of timber is nailed along the vertical ones at 3 feet above the
feed trough. Each cow then has its own feeding space.
- The trough can be made of timber or stones. For water, a half drum can be used, each for two
cows, instead of constructing a trough. For more than two cows more drums are used as
necessary so that water and enough space for each animal is available.
- If sufficient funds are available both feed and water troughs can be made of bricks and
cement (assuming that concrete is more costly in relation to costs of drums and timber). The
choice of the materials used for making troughs depends on the costs and availability of
materials.
- The inside measurements of the feed trough should be 60 cm (2 ft) wide at the bottom and
should be raised at least 15 cm (1/2 ft) above the ground level of the walking area. The feed
trough should not be too deep or cows will have difficulty reaching feed at the bottom. If it is
 too shallow, spillage and wastage of feed will occur. The trough is constructed such that its
outside is raised to prevent spillage of feed.

The Milking Place

- The milking place should be constructed next to the cubicles. It should also be of same
dimensions as cubicles i.e. 120 cm (4 ft) by 210 cm (7 ft).
- The floor should be flat and made of firm concrete and slope towards the walking area. The
direction of slope of the floor would ensure that dirt collected from the floor can flow
through the walking area onto the manure pit. There should be a feed trough at head of
milking place for feeding the cows during milking. The milking place should be kept clean.
Noise during milking may disturb the cow making it hold back some of her milk. For a zebu
cow, a calf pen should be constructed next to the milking place. This is because most zebu
cows let milk down only-when they see their calves.
- A head yoke is constructed to restrain the animal during milking. Milking place is not
optional under semi-zero grazing system. If a farmer chooses to make it optional, then clean
milk production is not guaranteed

The Calf pen (Optional)

- Calf mortality is often high in tropical countries, but proper management and suitable
housing that protects the calf from climatic stress, infections and parasites can reduce this.
Calf housing is recommended where free suckling is not permitted like in the case of zero-
grazing system.
- The calf pen is situated opposite the milking place. It has a floor surface of 120 cm by 150
cm (4x5 ft). A calf pen can also be situated on the side of a cubicle or milking place. This
depends on the type of unit and whether zebus cross breeds or pure dairy cattle are kept. The
floor of the calf pen should be slatted and raised by half to one (1/2-1) foot above the
concrete floor. The raised and slatted floor makes it easier to clean the calf pen floor and the
concrete under it. The floor under the slats can be concrete or not.
- The sides should be open to allow for free air flow around the calf pen. They should also be
high enough to contain the calf inside.
- The calf pen can be movable or fixed. The advantage of a movable calf pen is that it can be
taken to the family house, for example when the weather is too cold.
- Beddings are not recommended for a calf pen. They can encourage parasites resulting to
disease condition and/or infection of the calf.
- Three sides of the pens should be tight to prevent contact with other calves and* to prevent
draughts. Draughts through the slatted floor may be prevented by covering the floor with
litter until the calf is at least one month of age.
- The front of the pen should be made so that the calf can be fed milk, concentrates and water
easily from buckets or a trough fixed to the outside of the pen and so that the calf can be
moved out of the pen without lifting. The milk or milk substitute fed to the calf will not
provide it with enough liquid and therefore it should be given fresh, clean water daily or
preferably have continuous access to water in a drinking nipple.
- All calves, but especially those which are weaned early, should have access to good quality
forage as soon as possible to stimulate rumen development. Forage can be supplied in a rack
placed above the side wall of the pen

Bull Pens
- A bull pen should have a shaded resting area of 12 to 15m² and a large exercise area of 20 to
30m².
- The walls of the pen must be strong. Eight horizontal rails of minimum 100mm round timber
or 50mm galvanized steel tubes to a total height of 1.5m and fixed to 200mm timber posts
not more than 2m apart will be sufficient.
- The gate must be designed so that the bull cannot lift it off its hinges and there should be at
least two exits where the herdsman can escape.
- A service stall where the cow can be tethered prior to and during service is usually provided
close to the bull pen. The stall can have ramps at the sides to support the bull's front feet.
Sheep and Goats
Small ruminant housing need to:
 Be strong enough to last a long time;
 Be large enough for the number of animals to be accommodated comfortably.
 Allow freedom of movement for all animals;
 Be well-drained or have well-maintained dry bedding and easy to clean. Sheep and goats do
not tolerate mud well; therefore, yards and shelters should be built only on well-drained
ground;
 Receive morning sunshine evenly;
 Be well lighted and ventilated. Air circulation, dust levels, temperature, relative air humidity
and gas concentrations should be at levels that will not harm animals;
 Have suitable isolation pens for sick or injured animals as far away from the main house as
possible.

Types of traditional housing

Traditional sheep and goat housing is made of varying designs and construction materials
depending and upon local custom and availability. Some main types of housing include:
- Housing at one corner of the main family house;
- An overhang attached to the roof of a house;
- Open yards with no roof
- In a basement under the family home.
- Separate houses of thatched roofs
Shortcomings of traditional housing
Traditional sheep and goat shelters are usually poorly lit and have inadequate ventilation and
drainage. Housing sheep and goats within the family house can have serious consequences
should an outbreak of zoonotic diseases (e.g., anthrax) occur. Diseases such as mange and
coccidiosis could be transmitted to children. Housing animals in close quarters also encourages
spread of external parasites, and bacterial and viral infections among animals.

Types / designs of recommended housing options

Where to locate animal housing/sheds
The location of the house/shed is important for animal comfort and safety. Sheep and goat
housing should be built:
 On a well-drained area.
 Downwind from the owner’s house.
 Near to the family house to keep an eye on the animals but far enough to minimize smell
(at least 10 meters).
 On a floor 1-1.5 m above the ground should the area be waterlogged or prone to flooding.
It is always wise to keep in mind the possibility of expansion when building housing for sheep
and goats. An appropriate flock development plan has to be made to anticipate future
construction needs.

Orientation
The orientation of the shed can be important depending on the climate. One can prevent the sun
from heating up the stall too much by placing the longitudinal axis of the stall east - west. If, on
the other hand, one wants the sun to shine on the floor so that the floor dries up and parasites die,
it is better to build the shed along a north - south axis (This is preferred in humid areas).

Ventilation
The purpose of ventilation is to provide the desired amount of fresh air, without drafts, to all
parts of the shelter; to maintain temperatures within desired limits; and to maintain ammonia
levels below specified levels. Ventilation is of utmost importance to maintain a desirable interior
temperature of28 to 30°C. If the animals cannot get rid of heat because the surrounding
temperature is too high (above 30°C), they eat less and therefore produce less. Majority of
pneumonia cases can be traced to excessively warm and humid interior and sudden changes in
temperature. It is, therefore, necessary to make the shed sufficiently high and make sure there are
openings for ventilation in the roof or walls. It is essential to note that ventilation is good, but
draughts are bad! The ventilation openings must, therefore, be placed high enough so that air
does not blow directly past the animals (draught).In warm climates, where the stalls are fairly
open, a low wall of about 1 meter on the side the wind comes from is sufficient.

Roof
The roof provides protection from sun and rain and can be of a shed, gable or modified gable
style Slope is important in removing rain and thatched roofs need a greater slope than iron
sheeting. A greater slope is also beneficial in areas with high rainfall. The roof should be
waterproof with sufficient overhang to prevent rain from blowing in. Adequate ventilation in
essential in maintaining animal health. A high roof encourages air movement but is more likely
to be damaged by strong winds. A roof vent can assist in proper ventilation. Roofs can be
constructed from iron sheet, grass/bushes, wood, stone/brick or earth depending on production
system, material availability and climate.

Wall:
The wall should not be completely solid to allow air movement through the house. Good air
movement (ventilation) is essential to remove moisture, excess heat in hot weather and/or odor
and gasses from animal waste so that animals stay cool, dry and clean. Inadequate ventilation can
lead to problems such as pneumonia. While good ventilation is essential for animal health, drafty
conditions must be avoided. Air circulation should be above the animals’ heads and ventilation
openings should be placed high enough so that air does not blow directly past the animals. Air
movement cane effected through mechanical (e.g., ventilator) or natural means. Providing
openings or short sidewalls of about 1 meter height will provide sufficient ventilation. A hedge
can also fulfill this function. Outer walls are designed to protect animals from external influences
and inner walls aid in animal management, such as controlling breeding. At a minimum, inner
walls should create pens for:
_ Males
_ Females with young
_ Females without young
Other pens to consider building are those for weaned young, young males of breeding age, young
females of breeding age, and an isolation pen for sick animals. A paddock or yard alongside the
shed where animals can exercise and be fed and watered can also be built.
Generally, animals are separated based on their physiological status. Partitioning a sheep/goat
barn has the following advantages:
 It is easier to feed different classes of animals according to their needs.
 It is easier to follow a mating schedule.
 It is easier to control breeding and, thus, prevent inbreeding and mating at a very early
age.
 Lactating animals can look after their young better and pregnant animals can give birth
under a more relaxed environment.
 Sick animals can be isolated; thus, reducing the risk of disease dissemination.
 At a minimum, barns should have separate pens for adult males, young males, pregnant
females, and young weaned offspring. If the herd is large and space is available,
additional pens should be constructed for:
 Weaned male lambs/kids of the same size should be penned together and not mixed with
younger, smaller animals unable to compete for feed;
 Pregnant females close to parturition should be penned separately from nursing females,
young females not bred yet and adult males;
 Partitions for adult male pens should be high enough so that males cannot jump out to
prevent unintended mating;
 Whereas small barns may not need an aisle between pens, particularly in large barns, a
center aisle makes many management practices easer; such as sorting animals, feeding,
monitoring breeding, etc. It also facilitates movement of workers in the barn.

Floor:
The floor could either be packed earth, concrete or slatted packed earth or concrete floors should
have a slope of about 5% for good drainage. Raised platforms where sheep and goats can lie
above the floor and away from manure and urine are beneficial. These can be placed along the
longest wall of the barn.
Slatted floors should be raised about 1-1.5 meters above ground level to facilitate easy cleaning
and collecting of dung and urine. The gap between the slats should be 1.4 to 1.6 cm to allow easy
passage of fecal material and guarantee safe footing for the animals. Newborn and young lambs
should not be put on slatted floors. A piece of wood temporarily placed on the slats will prevent
leg injury to very young lambs and kids. A raised, slatted floor in tropical and subtropical areas
has the following advantages:
 No need of bedding
 Allows manure, urine and debris to drop through the slatted floor, thus removing a major
source of disease and parasite infestation
 Requires less labor to clean and maintain
 Remains relatively dry and clean
 Reduced space requirements
 Manure is easily collected for fertilizer use or for sale
 Allows air to pass through the slats increasing ventilation and comfort in hot weather.
The main disadvantage of raised, slatted floors is the high expense of construction. Some
materials, such as bamboo, may be cheaper than wood but may provide less secure footing. For
all but the smallest barns, commercial wood is preferred to bamboo as it stronger and more long-
lasting. Cost, ease of installation and safety must all be considered when selecting flooring
material for a slatted floor. Other concerns with slatted floors are leg and foot problems from too
wide a gap or poor maintenance of existing slatted floors.

Space requirement:
In any type of housing for sheep and goats, adequate floor space must be provided.
Recommended space requirements vary depending on animal size and the type of floor used
(Table below). Adjustments may also be made depending on local climate and flock size.
Additionally for animals managed totally indoors, an open yard for exercising is required. Sheep
and goats should not be crowded and must have room to lie down. Overcrowding promotes ill
health.

Recommended floor space for sheep and goats

ANIMAL HANDLING STRUCTURES
Crushes, dips and spray races
The three structures have their use dependent on the size of the herd

Crush
It is a farm structure used in animal handling, with a holding yard and a fenced narrow passage
in which animals are restrained for different kinds of routine animal husbandry practice. The
length of the crush is influenced by the number of animals the farmer wishes to handle at a go.
Uses of a Crush
1. Vaccination and taking blood samples can be carried out.
2. Artificial insemination ,
3. Clinical examination e.g. taking temperature.
4. Hand spraying and drenching are also easier if the animal is confined in a rigidly fenced
–in area.
5. Drenching or deforming against internal parasites e.g. worms
6. Dehorning
7. Milking
8. Pregnancy tests
9. Application of identification marks e.g. branding, tattooing etc.
10. Close examination of sick animals.
For small scale farmer with 1 -10 exotic cows, sheep or goats there is no need of using a
communal dip unless it’s near his/her farm. It’s better to spray them in crush at home because of
the following reasons.
i. There is no risk of loss in milk production due to trekking his animals to a far – off,
communal bath.
ii. He has complete control of his animals. Like proper mixing of the dip wash and water.
iii. Can spray the sick and pregnant animals without any risk on them.
iv. Enables the farmer to handle his animals more closely and be aware of the parasite
situation in his farm.
v. There is no risk of animals collecting or spreading diseases by coming in contact with
other animals on the way or from the dip.

Spray races.
An alternative to the dip to the dip tank, the spray is constructed in such a way that the animals
are washed in a in a shower are pointed in all directions to ensure coverage of the animal. This
method is more economical in the use of expensive acaricide.
A spray race is made up the following basic parts
1. Side walls
2. The spray pipe system with nozzles
3. Guide rails
4. Delivery pipe
5. Control valve
6. The sump (reservoir)
7. Agitator pipe
8. Sunction pipe and foot valve down in
the sump.
9. Pump priming pipe.
10. Filter mesh or silver
11. Pressure gauge
12. Drainage pipe
 13. Driving engine or tractor with P.T.O

Stock Management at the spray Race

i. The cattle should be arranged in single file as they enter the race.
ii. It should be checked that the animals lift their tails as they go through so that under – tail
wetting places.
iii. The long fringe of hair covering the upper, inner surface of the ears and the tail switch as
far as 5cm from the tail end may be cut to achieve better wetting of the ears and the tail
switch.
iv. Young calves should be passed in the race with pressure reduced or else passed into the
race in a group with the spray off and then showered with full spray.
v. When adult cattle are being sprayed for the first time they can be run through the race
once or twice without being sprayed to accustom them to it.

After Spraying
i. The remaining quantity of the dirty spray wash (400-500 litres) should be pumped out
into a fenced off pit or excess pool and the whole unit thoroughly cleaned and nozzles
cleared by circulation of clean water.
ii. A few centimeters of water should be left in the sump to keep the foot valve moist
and to prevent cracking of the sump floor.
iii. Finally plug the return wash pipe at the exit of the spray race to keep out rain water.

Advantages of a spray race

i. It is quicker and can spray more animals per hour than a plunge-dip.
ii. It can spray small stock (sheep and goats) more easily since they do not have to swim
through as in dip bath.
iii. Pregnant and sick animals are also easily sprayed.
iv. The wash is often fresh and at a better concentration of dip-wash, since just enough is made
for the day, after which the remaining dirty wash can be thrown off.
v. Although the initial cost of building a spar race is high but is cheaper in long run than a dip.
vi. It does not require much labour as is the case with hand spraying and dipping.
Disadvantages of a spray race
i. It requires better technical skills in maintenance of the engine (or tractor) plus the
pump.
ii. In wet weather the nozzles tend to clog with dirt in the wash.
iii. It is only economical with a very large herd.

The Cattle Dip

A dip tank is used to control ticks on farm animals by total submergence in an acaricide. Most
cattle dip has a standard capacity of 13,000 – 14,000 litres. The animals walk into the dip tank
through a funnel entrance from a race. A foot –bath is constructed so that the animals will not
soil the dip –was .They swim to the other side of the tank, where a staircase enables them to
climb out. The dip –wash is usually about 1.6m deep. Once out of the tank, the animals dry out
in the drainage race. This prevents contamination of the pastures and acaricides wastage .See fig
11 for the layout of the cattle dip

Sitting a dip
- The ground where a dip is to be built, and the area around it, should be slightly sloping and
as hard as possible, but not so rocky that a hole for the dip cannot be dug. Laterite (murram)
soil is ideal. The ground must support the structure of the dip, be well drained and not
become muddy in wet weather. It must also be resistant to erosion or gulling of cattle tracks.
- Cattle must not be hot or thirsty when they are dipped, so it is important to have a water
trough inside the collecting yard fence.
- The dip and the waste pit must therefore be sited to ensure that there is no risk of acaricide
polluting drinking-water supplies, either by overflowing or by percolating through the
ground. The waste pit should be at least 50 metres from any river or stream, 100 metres from
a spring or well, and considerably more than that if the subsoil is sandy or porous.

Footbaths
Footbaths are provided to wash mud off the feet of the cattle to help keep the dip clean. At least
two are recommended each 4.5 metres long and 25–30 cm deep but in muddy areas it is desirable
to have more. Up to 30 metres total length may sometimes be required. The floors of footbaths
should be studded with hard stones set into the concrete to provide grip, and to splay the hoofs
apart to loosen any mud between them. The footbaths should be arranged in a cascade, so that
clean water added continuously at the end near the dip overflows from each bath into the one
before it, with an overflow outlet to the side near the collecting pen. Floor-level outlet pipes from
each bath can be opened for cleaning. If the supply of water is extremely limited, footbath water
can be collected in settling tanks and reused later.
Jumping place
A narrow, steep flight of short steps ensures that:
- animals can grip and jump centrally into the dip;
- their heads are lower than their rumps at take-off;
- they jump one at a time;
- Dip-wash splashing backwards returns to the dip.
The lip of the jumping place experiences extreme wear and should be reinforced with a length
of10 cm-diameter steel pipe. The jumping place should be 40 cm above the dip-wash level.
While such a height is desirable to give maximum immersion, there could be some danger to
heavily pregnant cows if the water level should fall further 40 cm. (The dipping of 1 000 cattle
without replenishment would lower the water level to 60 cm below the jumping place.)
Splash walls and ceiling are provided to catch the splash and prevent the loss of any acaricide.
The ceiling protects the galvanized roof from corrosion. The wall scan be made of wood, but
masonry is more durable.

The dipping tank

The dipping tank is designed to a size and shape to fit a jumping cow and allow her to climb out,
while economizing as far as possible on the cost of construction and the recurrent cost of
acaricide or refilling. A longer tank is needed if an operator standing on the side is to have a
good chance of re-immersing the heads of the animals while they are swimming, and increased
volume can slightly prolong the time until the dip must be cleaned out. In areas with cattle of
the‘Ankole’ type with very long horns the dip-tank needs to be much wider at the top. Poured
reinforced concrete is the best material to use in constructing a dipping tank in any type of soil.
While it is expensive if only a single tank is to be built because of the cost of the formwork
involved, the forms can be reused. If five tanks are built with one set of forms, the cost per tank
is less than the cost of building with other materials, such as concrete blocks or bricks. A
reinforced concrete dipping tank is the only type with a good chance of surviving without
cracking in unstable ground. In areas prone to earthquakes, a one piece tank is essential.
Catwalks and handrails are provided to allow a person to walk between the splash walls to rescue
an animal in difficulty. In addition to providing shade, a roof over the dipping tank reduces
evaporation of the dip-wash, prevents dilution of the dip-wash by rain, and in many cases,
collects rainwater for storage in a tank for subsequent use in the dip.

Draining race
The return of surplus dip-wash to the dipping tank depends on a smooth, watertight, sloping floor
in the draining race. A double race reduces the length and is slightly cheaper in materials, but a
very long single race is preferable where large numbers of cattle are being dipped. Side-sloping
of the standing area towards a channel or gutter increases the backflow rate. The total standing
area of the draining race is the factor that limits the number of cattle that can be dipped per hour,
and the size shown in the drawings should be taken as the minimum.

Waste disposal and pollution

All dipping tanks need to be cleaned out from time to time with disposal of the accumulated
sediment. It is normal for all the waste dip-wash to be thrown into a ‘waste pit’ that is dug close
to the dip. In addition, dipping tanks may crack with the resulting leakage of acaricide.
WORKSHOPS
A workshop provides a focal point on the farmstead for the repair and maintenance of
machinery, implements and structures. It also provides a place where tools cane stored in an
orderly manner, a store for supplies and spare parts, and a shelter where work can be carried out
during inclement weather. A facility of this type should be available on every farm. However, the
size and design of a workshop should be commensurate with the size of the farm and the work to
be carried out in the workshop.
The smallholder may be adequately served with a storage cupboard for tools that can be locked
for security and a workbench with a simple home-made vice for holding tools while they are
being sharpened or fitted with new handles. From this simple beginning, a more complete facility
may gradually evolve as the farm operation grows and more equipment is required. As repair
tools and supplies represent a considerable investment, most farmers will want to store them in a
secure place.
Many small-scale farmers will not require a separate store for this purpose but, if stored together
with hand tools and small implements, the number of items may prompt the farmer to build a
storeroom by enclosing part of the workshop with solid walls.
At the other extreme, a large ranch or commercial farm may need a separate building with
extensive equipment for maintaining farm machinery, tractors and vehicles. Farmers may also
use their workshop to carry out routine repairs and preventive maintenance during the off-season,
to build or modify some of the equipment used on the farm and to prefabricate building elements
to be used in construction projects.
The workshop facilities should be cost-effective. That is, enough savings should be generated
from timely maintenance, repairs and construction projects to pay for the cost of the building and
the necessary tools and equipment. Although it is difficult to put a monetary value on timeliness,
there is no question that it is important to be able to make emergency repairs.
Some farm operations (such as planting, spraying and milking) are more sensitive than others to
prolonged interruptions, and having facilities to complete repair son the farm can reduce delays
to a minimum.
Other factors, apart from the farm size, which will influence the scale of the workshop facilities,
are the number and diversity of machines, the availability of service from dealers, and the
interest and mechanical skill exhibited by the farmer and farm [Link] necessary, a skilled
mechanic may be employed. Without qualified personnel to use the workshop it becomes
questionable in value and may even contribute to more frequent breakdowns and additional
expense resulting from careless work.
The workshop should be located close to the work centre of the farm and convenient to the farm
home, on ground that is well drained and sufficiently level to allow easy maneuvering of
equipment. Where electric power is available, proximity to the power source should be
considered.
Features important for a safe and efficient workshop
 Sufficient room for the largest machine that may need repair, including workspace around it.
If the machine is large, truss roof construction may be needed to provide the required space
without intermediate supports.
 An entrance that is both wide enough and high enough for the largest equipment that the
workshop has been designed to accommodate. If the building is enclosed with either solid
walls or wire netting, a second door is essential for safety in case of fire.
 Some means of lifting and supporting heavy loads. When the roof span is 3 metres or less, a
timber beam is often adequate. For larger spans or very heavy loads, a truss will be required.
Alternatively, a portable hoist can be used.
 Electric lighting and electrical sockets for power tools.
 A water supply for both convenience and safety.
 One or more fire extinguishers of a type suitable for fuel fires. Two or three buckets of dry
sand are a possible substitute or supplement for a fire extinguisher.
 Storage cabinets for tools, supplies and spare parts. Sturdy doors can be locked for security,
as well as providing space to hang tools and display small supplies for easy access.
 A heavy workbench attached to the wall or otherwise firmly supported. It should be 1 metre
high, up to 800 mm deep and at least 3 metres long, and equipped with a large vice. There
must be sufficient clear space around it to maneuver work pieces and, if attached to a solid
wall, ample window openings above it to provide light.

Constructions Costs of structures

The cost of the building will be dependent on many factors e.g. site preparation; transport of
materials to site; cost of materials and cost of labour.
These factors will vary from one place to another. The cost however, is less important than the
cost effectiveness, which will depend on the farming enterprise as whole. A large, expensive,
factory – made building may easily be justified on large farm with high value crops, but would
be too expensive for a small farmer. A smaller construction made from local materials built by
itself would possibly be more satisfactory. Each case must be considered on its own merits in
order to make the best choice.
Maintenance
No structure will last forever .Regular inspections are necessary so that any defects can be put
right before major and expensive damage results.