Answer 01

2x2 −3x+1
(A) limx→1 x−1

2x2 − 3x + 1 (2x − 1)(x − 1)

lim = lim
x→1 x−1 x→1 x−1
= lim (2x − 1)
x→1
= 2(1) − 1 = 1
√
1− 1−4x2
(B) limx→0 x2
√ √ √
1− 1 − 4x2 1 − 1 − 4x2 1 + 1 − 4x2
lim = lim · √
x→0 x2 x→0 x2 1 + 1 − 4x2
12 − (1 − 4x2 )
= lim √
2
x→0 x (1 + 1 − 4x2 )
4x2
= lim √
x→0 x2 (1 + 1 − 4x2 )
4
= lim √
x→0 1 + 1 − 4x2
4 4
= p = =2
1 + 1 − 4(0) 2

1−cos x
(C) limx→0 x2

1 − cos x L’H sin x

lim = lim
x→0 x2 x→0 2x
L’H cos x
= lim
x→0 2
cos(0) 1
= = = 0.5
2 2

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 Answer 02

The function f : R → R is given by

(
sin x, if x ≤ 1
f (x) =
ax + 2, if x > 1

For f (x) to be continuous on R, it must be continuous at the transition point

x = 1. This requires the left-hand limit and the right-hand limit to be equal:

lim f (x) = lim+ f (x)

x→1− x→1

Left-Hand Limit (x ≤ 1):

lim f (x) = lim− sin x = sin(1)

x→1− x→1

Right-Hand Limit (x > 1):

lim f (x) = lim+ (ax + 2) = a(1) + 2 = a + 2

x→1+ x→1

Equating the limits:

sin(1) = a + 2
a = sin(1) − 2
The value of a is sin(1) − 2.

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 Answer 03

Description of the Set A

The function φ : R → R is defined by φ(x) = bxc, the greatest integer function
(or floor function).
The set A is defined as the set of all points a ∈ R where φ is continuous at
a:
A = {a ∈ R : φ is continuous at a}.
The greatest integer function φ(x) = bxc is discontinuous precisely at every
integer point. We analyze the continuity at two cases:

Case 1: a is not an integer (a ∈

/ Z)
If a is not an integer, then there is an open interval containing a on which φ(x)
is a constant function. Let n = bac. For x sufficiently close to a, bxc = n.

lim φ(x) = lim n = n

x→a x→a
φ(a) = bac = n

Since limx→a φ(x) = φ(a), φ is continuous at all non-integer points.

Case 2: a is an integer (a ∈ Z)
Let a = n, where n ∈ Z. We examine the one-sided limits:

• Right-Hand Limit: For x → n+ , x > n, but close to n, so bxc = n.

lim φ(x) = lim bxc = n

x→n+ x→n+

• Left-Hand Limit: For x → n− , x < n, but close to n, so bxc = n − 1.

lim φ(x) = lim− bxc = n − 1

x→n− x→n

Since limx→n+ φ(x) 6= limx→n− φ(x) (as n 6= n − 1), the limit limx→n φ(x) does
not exist. Thus, φ is discontinuous at all integer points.

Conclusion
The function φ is continuous only when a is not an integer. Therefore, the set
A is described as:
A = {a ∈ R : a ∈
/ Z} = R \ Z

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 Answer 04

(A) The absolute value function φ(x) = |x|

The function φ(x) = |x| is continuous everywhere on R.
• For x > 0, φ(x) = x, which is continuous.
• For x < 0, φ(x) = −x, which is continuous.
• At x = 0:
lim φ(x) = lim− (−x) = 0
x→0− x→0

lim φ(x) = lim (x) = 0

x→0+ x→0+

φ(0) = |0| = 0
Since limx→0 φ(x) = φ(0), φ(x) is continuous at x = 0.

(B) The function g(x) = |f (x)| where f : R → R is continuous

The function g(x) = |f (x)| is continuous everywhere on R.
• Let f (x) be continuous on R.
• Let h(y) = |y| be the absolute value function, which is continuous on R
(from part A).
• g(x) is the composition of continuous functions, g(x) = h(f (x)).
By the Composition Theorem for Continuous Functions, g(x) is continuous on
R.
√
(C) The function f : [0, ∞) → R defined by f (x) = x
√
The function f (x) = x is continuous on its entire domain, [0, ∞).

Continuity for a > 0 ( − δ verification)

Fix a > 0. We examine |f (x) − f (a)|:
√ √ |x − a|
|f (x) − f (a)| = | x − a| = √ √
x+ a
√ √ √
Since x ≥ 0 and a > 0, we have x + a ≥ a.
√ √ |x − a|
| x − a| ≤ √
a
√
Given  > 0, we choose δ =  a. If |x − a| < δ, then
√
√ √ |x − a| δ  a
| x − a| ≤ √ < √ = √ =
a a a

Thus, φ is continuous for all a > 0.

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Continuity at a = 0
√
We check the right-hand continuity. We need limx→0+ x = 0. Given  > 0,
choose δ = 2 . If 0 ≤ x < δ, then
√ √ √ √
| x − 0| = x < δ = 2 = 

Thus, φ is continuous at a = 0.

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 Answer 05

Both φ(x) = max{f (x), g(x)} and ψ(x) = min{f (x), g(x)} are continuous
functions, provided f and g are continuous. This is demonstrated by expressing
them algebraically using the absolute value function.
We use the given identity and the related identity for the minimum:
1
max{a, b} = (a + b + |a − b|)
2
1
min{a, b} = (a + b − |a − b|)
2

Continuity of φ(x) = max{f (x), g(x)}

Substituting a = f (x) and b = g(x), we have:
1
φ(x) = (f (x) + g(x) + |f (x) − g(x)|)
2
Since f (x) and g(x) are continuous, we conclude:
• f (x) + g(x) is continuous (sum of continuous functions).
• f (x) − g(x) is continuous (difference of continuous functions).

• |f (x) − g(x)| is continuous (composition of the continuous absolute value

function and f (x) − g(x)).
Since φ(x) is the sum of continuous functions, multiplied by a constant, φ(x) is
continuous on R.

Continuity of ψ(x) = min{f (x), g(x)}

Similarly, for ψ(x):
1
ψ(x) = (f (x) + g(x) − |f (x) − g(x)|)
2
Since f (x) + g(x) and |f (x) − g(x)| are both continuous, their difference is also
continuous. Therefore, ψ(x) is continuous on R.

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 Answer 06

(A) Proof for Odd-Degree Polynomials

Let p(x) = xn + a1 xn−1 + · · · + an be a polynomial of odd degree n, where
we assume, without loss of generality, that the leading coefficient is 1. All
polynomial functions are continuous on R.
1. Asymptotic Behavior (Large Positive x): Since n is odd, the limit
as x approaches ∞ is positive ∞:

lim p(x) = lim xn = ∞

x→∞ x→∞

Thus, there exists a large positive number b such that p(b) > 0.
2. Asymptotic Behavior (Large Negative x): Since n is odd, the limit
as x approaches −∞ is negative ∞:

lim p(x) = lim xn = −∞

x→−∞ x→−∞

Thus, there exists a large negative number c such that p(c) < 0.
3. Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT): Since p(x) is continuous on the
interval [c, b], and p(c) < 0 and p(b) > 0, the Intermediate Value Theorem guar-
antees that there exists a real number a ∈ (c, b) such that p(a) = 0. Therefore,
every polynomial function of odd degree must have a real root.

(B) Even-Degree Polynomials

The statement in (A) is not true for even-degree polynomials.
Counterexample: The polynomial p(x) = x2 + 1 is an even-degree poly-
nomial, but p(x) > 0 for all x ∈ R, so it has no real roots.
Breakdown of the Proof: The step that breaks down for even-degree
polynomials (where n is even) is the analysis of the limit as x → −∞:

lim p(x) = lim xn = +∞

x→−∞ x→−∞

(Since n is even, xn is positive for all x 6= 0).

Because both limx→∞ p(x) = ∞ and limx→−∞ p(x) = ∞, we cannot guaran-
tee that we can find points c and b such that p(c) and p(b) have opposite signs.
The IVT can only guarantee a root if the function takes on both positive and
negative values.

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 Answer 07

Let f : [0, 1] → [0, 1] be a continuous function. We want to show there exists a

fixed point a ∈ [0, 1] such that f (a) = a.

1. Define a Continuous Helper Function

We are looking for a root of the equation f (x) = x, or f (x) − x = 0. Let us
define a new function g : [0, 1] → R by:

g(x) = f (x) − x

Since f (x) is continuous (given) and h(x) = x is continuous, their difference

g(x) is also continuous on the closed interval [0, 1].

2. Evaluate g(x) at the Endpoints

We analyze the signs of g(x) at the endpoints of the interval [0, 1]. Since the
codomain of f is [0, 1], we know that 0 ≤ f (x) ≤ 1 for all x ∈ [0, 1].

• At x = 0:
g(0) = f (0) − 0 = f (0)
Since f (0) ∈ [0, 1], we have f (0) ≥ 0.

g(0) ≥ 0

• At x = 1:
g(1) = f (1) − 1
Since f (1) ∈ [0, 1], we have f (1) ≤ 1, which implies f (1) − 1 ≤ 0.

g(1) ≤ 0

3. Apply the Intermediate Value Theorem (IVT)

Since g(x) is continuous on [0, 1] and g(1) ≤ 0 ≤ g(0), by the Intermediate Value
Theorem, there must exist a point a ∈ [0, 1] such that g(a) takes on every value
between g(1) and g(0), including 0.

g(a) = 0

4. Conclusion
Substituting the definition of g(x):

f (a) − a = 0 =⇒ f (a) = a

Thus, we have shown that there exists a point a ∈ [0, 1] such that f (a) = a.

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 Answer 08

We are asked to find all continuous functions f : R → R satisfying the condition:

f (x + y) = f (x) + f (y) for all x, y ∈ R

The solution must be of the form f (x) = cx, where c = f (1).

Step 1: Solution on Rational Numbers (Q)

Let c = f (1).

For Integers (n ∈ Z)
• Zero: Setting x = y = 0 gives f (0) = f (0) + f (0), so f (0) = 0.
• Positive Integers (n ∈ N): By induction, we show f (nx) = nf (x).

f (2x) = f (x + x) = 2f (x)

Assuming f (kx) = kf (x), then f ((k + 1)x) = f (kx) + f (x) = kf (x) +

f (x) = (k + 1)f (x). Setting x = 1, we have f (n) = nf (1) = cn.
• Negative Integers (−n ∈ Z): Setting y = −x gives f (0) = f (x)+f (−x),
so f (−x) = −f (x).

f (−n) = −f (n) = −(cn) = c(−n)

Thus, f (n) = cn for all n ∈ Z.

For Rational Numbers (r = p/q ∈ Q)

Let r = p/q, where p ∈ Z, q ∈ N. We use the property f (qx) = qf (x) with
x = r:
f (qr) = qf (r) =⇒ f (p) = qf (r)
Substituting f (p) = cp:
p
cp = qf (r) =⇒ f (r) = c = cr
q

The solution holds for all r ∈ Q: f (r) = cr.

Step 2: Extension to Real Numbers (R)

Let x be any real number (x ∈ R). Since Q is dense in R, there exists a sequence
of rational numbers {rn } such that limn→∞ rn = x.
We use the fact that f is continuous at x:
 
f (x) = f lim rn
n→∞

By continuity:
f (x) = lim f (rn )
n→∞

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Since rn ∈ Q, we use the result from Step 1, f (rn ) = crn :

f (x) = lim (crn )

n→∞

f (x) = c lim rn
n→∞

Since limn→∞ rn = x:
f (x) = cx
The continuous functions satisfying the condition are f (x) = cx, where c ∈ R
is a constant.

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