EVOLUTION

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 Meaning of evolution: Evolution is act of unrolling or unfolding.

 Evolution means an orderly change from one form to another.
 Origin of universe : According to Big Bang theory;
According to this theory, our solar system originated about 5 billion years
back from a rotating cloud of gases called nebulous. This mass of gas
exploded with a big bang into several pieces of hot gases called nebulae.
Each nebula formed into solar system. The heavy metals like iron, nickel,
aluminum carbon, hydrogen condensed and formed into earth’s core. While
lighter elements formed into earth’s crust, while lightest atoms like H, He, N
and O are formed into atmosphere.
Origin of life:
 Various theories are proposed by various biologists in several period, some
of the important theories are listed as below:
1. Theory of special creation:
 This theory states that entire universe was formed by super natural power,
god.
 God created the entire universe in six days, according to Christianity. The
earth and the heaven were created on the first day sky, on second day land
and plants were formed on third day, the sun, the moon and the stars on
fourth day, fish and fowls on the fifth day and animals including human
beings on the sixth day.
 God Brahma created life in a single stroke, according to Hindu mythology.
 The first man was Manu and Shradha was the first woman.
 Due to lack of scientific explanations, this theory was rejected.
2. Theory of spontaneous Generation (Abiogenesis):
 This theory proposes that the living form arose spontaneously from non-
living materials such as dung, mud, earth etc.
 According to this theory, the origin of insects took place from dew, frogs and
toads from muddy bottom of ponds, maggots from decaying meat, tape
worms from excreta of animals and micro-organisms from air or water.
3. Biogenesis theory:
Proposed by Franscisco Redi, Louis Pasteur ans spallanzani.
 It states that’’ life arises from pre-existing life only’.
 Louis Pasteur showed that pre-sterilized swan neck flasks, life did notcome
from killed yeast. In another flask open to air, new living organisms arose.
4. Cosmozoic theory:
 This theory states that life, in the form of spores or seeds called panspermia,
originated from some other planet on earth.
 5. Theory of chemical evolution;
This is modern concept,proposed by Oparin and Haldane. According to
this theory,”Life is originated from chemical substances”
Earth is originated 4.5 million years ago. Earth consists of various elements
like C,H,O,N,Ni,Cu,K,Si,Al etc
1. Formation of simple compounds:
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All these elements combines with ach other and forms simple compounds.
CH4 Methane
C NH3 Ammonia
H HCN hydrogen
O cyanide
N H2O Water
CO2 Carbon dioxide
H2 Hydrogen
molecule

2. Formation of micro molecules:

CH4 + H2O → Sugar,Fatty acids,
glycerol

CH4 + H2O+ NH3 → Amino acids

CH4 + H2O+ NH3 +HCN → Purins, Pyrimidines

3. Formation of macromolecules:
Sugars+Sugars→ Polysaccharides
Fatty acids+Glycerol→ Lipids
Amino acids+Amino acids→ Proteins
Purins/ Nucleotides
Pyrimidines+sugar+phosphate→
Nucleotides+Nucleotides→ Nucleic acids
Nucleic acids+Proteins→ Nucleoproteins
4. Formation of protobiont (protocell);
Formation of Nucleic acid is the first sign of life with the capacity to grow,
self replicate and mutant which are the important properties of life.
The nucleic acid combined with inorganic and organic compounds to form
the first cell called protobiont or protocell.
Stanley miller’s experiment
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Stanley miller conducted experiment in 1953 in order to experimental

verification of chemical evolution theory.
Miller introduced into the apparatus, a mixture of gases like methane,
ammonia and hydrogen in the ratio of 1;2;2 which was supposed to be
present in the pre-biotic environment (creating a prebiotic atmosphere). He
partially filled the flask with water and heated it (simulating the ocean).this
mixture was then exposed to a continuous electrical discharge at about 800 0
c (simulating lighting) for several days causing the gases to interact. The
mixture was then passed through a condenser and collected in the trap. He
then analyzed the contents. He observed formation of amino acids.
In similar experiments others observed that formation of sugars, nitrogen
bases, pigment and fats. The first non-cellular forms of life originated 3
billion years back (Ex- RNA, Protein ,Polysaccharides). All life forms
were in water environment only.
Evolution of life forms-A theory.
Special creation theory has 3 connotations (Ideas). They are has follows
1. All living organisms which are present today on this earth were created
by god
2. The diversity was always same since creation and will be same in
future also
3. The earth is about 4000 years old.
But all these ideas are different from other theories. Based on these
observations Charles Darwin made sea voyage in sail ship called HMS
Beagle for five years and study in details.
Finaly he concluded that all living things are not originated at the same
time but, one form of life gives rise to another by slow and gradual
change. So ‘origin of life from pre-existing life”
Organic evolution-evolution of living organismas
Inorganic evolution-evolution of stars, solar system, chemical
compounds.
Living organisms shows variations because of fitness. According to
Darwin,Fitness refers to “reproductive fitness”. Those who are fit will
survive it means Nature selected them (Natural selection). This idea of
Darwin was supported by Alfred Wallace who worked in Malay Archipelago
(Group of Islands between Asia and Australia)
Evidences for evolution:
Paleontological evidences- Paleontology is the study of fossils. Fossils are
remains of dead organisms found in earth crust.
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Significance of fossils-
 To study about extinct animals
 To study about pre-earth condition
 To study about geological period in which the fossils obtained.
Embryological evidences: It was proposed by Ernst Heckel based on
similarities between embryos of all vertebrates. He stated that ’Ontogany
repeats Phylogeny”
1. All embryos of vertebrates fallows same embryonic stages ( Morula,
Blastula…)
2. All embryos develops a row of vestigial gill slit just behind the head but, it
is functional only in fishes
3. Notochord is present in all embryos
But this proposal was not accepted by Karl Ernst Von Bear. He said that
embryos never pass through the adult stages of other animals.
Morphological and Anatomical evidences:
Homologous organs- organs having fundamental similarity in structure and
origin but different functions are called homologous organs.
Example-fore limbs of man and bat.
In plants-thorns of bougainvillea and tendrils of cucurbita.
Fleshy scales of onion and spines o opuntia.
The homologous organs are developed due to divergent evolution.
Divergent evolution; the same structures developed into different
directions due to different needs.(Same ancestor but diverged according to
needs)
Analogous organs- Organs having similar function but different structure
and origin is called analogous organs.
Example-wings of birds and insects, eyes of octopus and mammals.
Flipper of penguins and dolphins,
sweet potato (modified root) and potato (modified stem).
Analogous organs are due to convergent evolution.
Convergent evolution- different structures evolving for the same function
and hence having similarity.
Biochemical evidences: Organisms show similarities in proteins, genes,
biomolecules and metabolism. It indicates that common ancestry.
Evidences from natural selection:
Natural selection is the process by which the organisms that are best suited
for their environment to survive and reproduce.
Example-Industrial melanism.
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 In England, before Industrialiation (1850) there were more white winged

moths on trees than dark winged moths.
 After industrialization (1920), more dark winged moths and less white
winged moths were developed.
Reason:
Before Industrialization: there were white lichens on the trees. In that
background, white winged moths survived but dark winged moths were
picked out by predators.
After Industrialization: The tree trunks became dark due to industrial smoke
and soot. Lichens disappeared due to air pollution. Under this condition the
white winged moth did not survive because the predators identified them
easily. Dark winged moth survived because of suitable dark background.
Natural selection by anthropogenic action: it is the development of
resistant varieties in organisms due to human action. Example- excess use of
herbicides, pesticides, antibiotics or drugs etc…
Bio-geographical evidences (Adaptive radiation)
Adaptive radiation is the evolution of different species in a geographical area
starting from a point literally radiating to other areas of habitat.
Example- Darwin’s finches in Galapagas Islands, Australian marsupials,
placental mammals in Australia.
When more than one adaptive radiation is appeared in an isolated
geographical area, it results in convergent evolution. Example- Australian
marsupials and placental mammals
Sl no Placental mammals Australian marsupial
1 Mole Marsupial mole
2 Anteater Numbat (anteater)
3 Mouse Marsupial mouse
4 Lemur Spotted cuscus
5 Flying squirrel Flying phalanger
6 Wolf Tasmanian wolf

Theories of Biological evolution:

[Link]: Lamarck proposed following theories in 1809.
1. Inheritance of acquired characters-The character developed by an
organism during its life time is passed on to the next generation.
[Link] by use and Dis-use of organs- Organs that are used more
develop more, while those that are not used became vestigial.
Example; long neck of Giraffe is due to continuous elongation to feed leaves
on trees. This acquired character is inheritable from generation to
generation.
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[Link]: The collective work of the Darwin is called Darwinism. He

influenced by Thomas Malthus. Darwinism is based on two key concepts.
1. Branching descent- the entire organism evolved by descendants.
2. Natural selection – It is based on following factors. They are
over production- due to more reproductive capacity of parents, individuals
produced more.
Struggle for existence- individuals are struggle for existence.
Survival of the fittest – those which are having adoptive nature are survived.
Natural selection – Nature itself select those who are fit to survive.
Speciation- Formation of new species.
[Link] of continuity of germplasm. Proposed by August Weismann. He
cut off the tails of rats as many as 22 generations and allowed them to breed
but, tail less rat were never born. He said that there is a continuity of
germplasm(Germcells)but the somatoplasm(Cytoplasm of cell) is not
transmitted to next generation.
Mechanism of Evolution:
There are 3 openions which are leads to variation
[Link]’s------‘Factors’---leads to speciation or variation
[Link]-Natural selection----leads to speciation
[Link] de Vries ---- Mutation Theory of evolution---Mutation leads to
speciation.
According to this theory, evolution takes place through mutation and not by
minor variation. Mutation is sudden, random and directionless variation.
Mutation causes speciation (formation of new species). Speciation is by
saltation (single step, large mutation called saltation).
Differences between Darwin variation and Mutational variation
Darwin variation Mutational variation
Slow process Fast process
Directional Non-directional (Random)
Gradual changes leads to Sudden changes leads to
speciation speciation

Hardy-weinberg principle:
It states that ‘allele frequencies in a population are stable and constant
from generation to generation’.
The gene pool (total genes and their alleles in a population) remains
constant. This is called genetic equilibrium. It is represented by equation
P+q=1 or P2+2PQ+Q2=1
P2 =AA- Homoygous dominant
Q2 = aa – Homoygous recessive
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2pq= Aa-Heterozygous dominant.

Factors affecting Hardy-weinberg principle:

 Gene migration or gene flow- flow of gene from one population to another.
 Genetic drift- Allele frequencies may change by chance, when population
migrates or dies due to natural calamity. It alters the gene frequency of the
remaining population. Example- Founder effect: when a few individuals or a
small group of individuals migrate into a new geographical region they
become Founders and their effect is called Founders effect.
 Mutation-sudden and immediate changes takes place in a genes
 Genetic recombination-recombination of genes due to crossing over between
non-sister chromatids .
 Natural selection- there are 3 types
1. Stabilisation-More individuals acquire mean character value
(Intermediate character)
2. Directional- More individuals acquire peripheral value other than
mean value
3. Disruptive-more individuals acquire at both the ends of the
distribution curve.
A Brief account of evolution: Geological time scale- The total life span of
the earth is called geological time. “The entire life span of the earth from the
time of its origin is called geological time.” The age of the earth is about 500
million years (5 Billion). Geologists divided into major divisions called ‘eras’.
The eras are further divided into’ Periods’. The periods are further divided
into ‘epochs’.
The eras, periods and epochs are arranged in a definite manner and their
arrangement is called Geological time scale.
Protozoic era (2500 – 541 mya)
 First cellular forms of life appeared
 Single celled organisms became multicellular organisms.
Paleozoic era- (540-252 mya)- It has 6 periods and they are Cambrian,
Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian.
 5oo mya- Invertebrates were formed
 450 mya – first land organisms (plants) appeared
 400 mya – Arthropods invaded the land
 350 mya –Jaw less fishes were evolved
 In 1938 a Coelacanth fish (lobe fins) was caught in South Africa which was
thought to be extinct.
 This fish was evolved into first amphibians.
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 320 mya – Sea weeds and sew plants were appeared

Mesozoic era (252 66 mya)- age of reptiles- it has 3 periods- Triassic,
Jurassic and Cretaceous.
 200 mya- Dinosaurs were appeared. Biggest dinosaur is Tyrannosaurus rex.
Cenozoic era (66 – 0 mya)- Age of mammals.
 It has 2 periods- Tertiary and quaternary.
 Age of man
 65 mya dinosaurs were suddenly disappeared
 First mammals were shrew like.
Origin of Man: Human beings belong to order primates and family
Homonidae. Man shares common characters with apes, chimpanzee and
gorilla. Human evolution started 15 mya,but man appeared only 3 mya.
Human beings originated first in East Africa.
Evolution of man can be studied under different stages and they are as follows
Dryopithecus and Ramapithecus:
 Oldest primate, ape like creature, originated 12 to 14 mya
 The fossils were discovered in siwalik hills near Chandigarh
 They were hairy and walked like gorillas and chimpanzees.
 Ramapithecus was man like and dryopithecus was ape like.
Australopithecus:(Homohabilus)
 It was originated by ramapithecus
 It is commonly called African ape-man
 He was terrestrial, walking in an erect posture
 Used simple tools, he did not know the use of fire
 Brain capacity is 650-800 cc
Homoerectus
 It was found about 1.5 mya.
 brain capacity is 900 cc
 they ate meat
Neanderthal man:
 The fossil was found in 1856 in the cave of the Neander valley between
100,00-40,000myears back.
 The nose was broad and flat
 The eye-brow ridges were heavy
 The skull was large and massive and cranial capacity was about 1400 cc
Homo sapien
 Fossil found Africa during ice age between 75,000 – 10,000 years back
 Resemble with present day man
 Cranial capacity was 1600 cc
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 Modern man. He knows agriculture and settlement.

 Highly cultured, developed in language, writing and reading.
 He knows cave paintings. One painting available at Bhimbetka rock shelter in
Raisen district of Madya Pradesh.