220 ENGINEERING PHYSICS -1

~
h t. l'ght ofwave
~ ,.11 A beam of monoc romifa ic ' If the refraleng th 5.82 x 10- 7 mfalls normally on ag"8,
ctive index of glass is 1.5, find the nuPnber '
wath the wedge angle of 20 seconds o an arc.
interference fringes per cm of the wedge length. Of "-t
Sep t 2013 rea"""ar (4 marks) . ~ """
(GGSIPU, rr- ' ..,,.y a.-~ (4 ~
Solution. Given ).. =5.82 x10-7 m, a =20", µ =1.S
The fringe width A.
p= -
2µa
a= 2ox 1t · radian
60x60xl80
S.S2 x10-7 x60x60xl80 5.82x6x6x18'x l0- 5
P= 2xl.5x20x1t 2xl.5x2x1t
=2.0xl0- 3 m =0.2 cm.
Number of dark interference fringes (m) per cm
of the wedge length i.e.,
-m- =-1 =-1-= -p
10 er cm= Sfrin
ges per cm.
x2 -x1 ~ 0.2cm 2
Exa mpl e 4.1.1 A glass wedge of angle 0.01 radia
n is illuminated by monochromatic light of wavelength
6000 Afalling normally on it. At what distances from
the edge of the wedge will the 10th fringe be obsmrtrl
by rejlec~ light ?
[GGSIPU, Nov. 2006, Sepl 2005 (4 marbll
Solution. Given that a = 0.01 radian, n = 10
A= 6000 A= 6000 x 10- 10 m
The condition for dark fringe 2t = nA
The angle of wedge a = -t or t = ax
X

2xa=nA
nA 10 X 6000 X 10- lO
x= 2a = 2x0.01 = 3 mm.

4.14 NEWTON'S RINGS

The phenomenon is special case of interference

in a thin film of slowly varying thickness and
frequently employed in the laboratory for the mea
surement of wavelength of monochromatic light
and refractive indices of rare liquids. This phen
omenon was first mentioned by Hooke in 1665-
Newton studied the subject more fully by making
careful measurement of diameters of the orcuJar
fringes produced in air film enclosed between the
slightly curved surface of a convex lens and a
plane glass plate in contact with it and hence they
are kno wn~ Newton's rings. These results were
interpreted by Young as being due to interference.

4.14.1 Experimental Arrangement for Newton'

s Rings
Let G be glass plate (beam splitter) and Tis low pow
er microscope. L is a planoconvex lens of
large radius of curvature. This lens with its conv
ex surface is placed on a plane glass plate at C
 INTERFERENCE 22 J

Light from an exte~ded monochromatic source such as sodium lamp falls on glass plate (using a
convex lens I., (collimator lens) to do JJ.!rallel, the rays coming from S ). G is held at 45° with the
vertical. The glass plate G reflects normally, a part of incident light towards the air film enclosed by
the tens Land the glass_plate P.
A part of the incident light is reflected by a curved surface of the lens L and a part is
transmitted which is reflected back from the plane surface of the plate. These two reflected
rays interfere an~ g~ve rise to an interference pattern in the form of circular rings. These rings are
localised in the air film and can be seen with a low power microscope T focussed on the film
[Fig. •.28).

NOTE
T Viewing
NeWtOn 's rings are foci of
microscope
constant thickness of the air
film these foci are concentric
circles hence fringes are
circular.
········ . . . ... . ................... ..................... .

Beam
splitter
source
Collimating
,, lens

c_____ Optical flat

P - ...,________

fig. 4.28 Newton's rings apparatus. Interference fringes of equal thickness are
produced by the air wedge between lens and optical flat.

4.14.2 Explanation of the Formation of Newton's Ring

Newton's rings are formed due to interference
between the light beams reflected from the top and
bottom surfaces of air film formed between the plates.
The formation of Newton's rings can be explained
With the help of Fig. 4.29. AB is a monochromatic light
Which falls on the system. A part is reflected at C
~ss-air interface) which goes out in the form of ray 1
Without any reversal. The other part is refracted along
PL-----------
CD. At point D, it is again reflected and goes out in the fig. 4.29 Formation of Newton's ring.
 222 :ENGINEERING PHYSICS - I

form of ray 2 ·with a ·phase reversal of 1t. The reflected rays 1 and 2 are in
· f a positio n to produ
mt~r erence fringes as they have been derive d from the same ray AB and hence
fulfill the conditiocen
of interference. As the rings are observ ed in the reflected light, the path differe
nce between them is
Actual path difference = 2µt cos (r +a)±~ ;
2 ..
a is tne angle of wedge, due to large radius of curvat ure of planoconvex lens, a is extrem
ely small
and can be neglected. ,. · · ·
So, path difference =2µt cos r ± ~
2
For air film, µ = 1
and for .norma l incidence L. r =0

.Hence in this case, the cpath difference =2 t ± ~ .

. 2
At point of contact t =0.

:. Path difference =~
2 [which is condit ion of minim um intensity]
Thus central spot is dark.
For nth m~u m, we have
"A,
2t±- =n"A, ...(4.82)
2
This expres sion shows that a maxim um of a particu lar order n will occur for
a constant value
of t. In case of this system, t remains consta nt along a circle. Thus the maxim
um is in the form of
circle ..For different;yalu e of t, different maxim a will occur. ·In a similar way, this
can be shown that
minim a are -also ·in -the circular form .

4.14.3 Production ,of Coher ent ;Sources ~in Newton's :Ring Experiment
;In this experiment, a ray is partially reflected back from the lower surface
of the
planoc onvex Jens and partially refracted. Thi$ refracted .ray is then .partialJy
reflect edoack from
upper surface of ·the plane ,glass plate placed below .the .piano-convex lens.
These two rays are
derive d from ·the same r-ay -i nciden t on the plane surface of the piano-convex
lens and have a
consta nt phase difference depend ing ,oncthe thickness of the air film at the
point of -reflection. In
this way, one gets these two rays by means of division of amplitude. Theref
ore, these two rays are
cohere nt in nature .

4.14 4 Theory of Newton's Rings · '

· ~Zwt on's Rings by Reflected Light ; ·

J 1

"~ow we shall calculate the diameters of dark and bright rings. Let LOL: be
lens placed on a
glass plate AB as shown in Fig. 4.30. The curved surface LOL: is the part of spheric
al surface with
centre C. Let R be the radius of curvat ure and r radius of corresponding ring
to the constant film
thickness t. As discussed above.
 ,INTfRFERENCE .223

.2""-1.
.,...i·-= .'\
.'"' ·n11.
2

-·2·t =.(2n ±l)-A. ..•(4;,83) ·-{For bright ring]

2
where ·n =1, 2, ,3, ... ,etc. .
-and ' ,; 2-t= nl , ·· r ..:(4.84) [For dark ring]
where ~ ::;0, t.1, -2,-3, ·4, ... ietc.
From .the prqpe rty of the circle, (Fig. 4.30)
NPx NQ = NOx ND
Substituting ·the ·values, .
-rx-r=.t (2R-t )
' 1 .
-'2Rt-- t =.2 Rt (approximately)
.,
I- .
I
' \
I
?- =2.'Rt .c' I

. ,2 "Tl,< I ' ,', R

or t=- R-t' ', ---, I
2R I '' '' /
T---- +---. .;,_.. ..;.L'
,r2 _ _ _- .:l_,__ _
or .2t= - ...(4.85)
R

Thus for brigh t ring,

r"'l (2n±l )l
= - -- fig. 4.30 :Essential geometiy .for calculating
-R 2
diameter of Newtori's··:rings. '
2 (2n±l)A°R ..•(4.86)
or r =---
2
_, • @
Replacing r by " :; ·we get the diame ter of nth,.br ight·ri ng:is
2
.'D2 (2n±1)WR
-=---
4 2
'· ' ...(4.87)
or ,D = ..j(2!J.;R) ..J(2n±il)

or Doc.J(2n±l)
of odd natura l
Thus the diame ters of the brigh t rings are proportional to the square root
numbers, as (2n±l ) is an odd numb er.
1
Similarly, for a dark ring, !_ =-nA.
R
or r 2 = nAR or D 2 =4n:>.R
< I •

D=[Link]"A.R
:..(4.88)
l numb ers.
Thus diame ters of dark rings are propo rtiona l to the squar e roots of natura
 224 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - I ·
er
ses wit h the ord er of the fringe and fringes get clos
It can be shown that fringe wid th decrea
with increase in their order.
s are : ' ·
• The diameters of 16t h and 9th dar k ring
D16 =2.J16')...R =B-JfiJ.

D9 =2 .J9')...R =6../i:R

D16 -D9 =B...fi. R - 6.../i.R

=2 ...fi.R
Similarly,..
D4 .:... D1 = 4.../i.R - 2 ...fi.R
=2 ...fi.R Pig. 4.31 Newton's rings
[reflected case].
This is sho wn in Fig. 4.31.
ring wil l be dark.
yt hi s case of reflected light the central
t [Fig . 4.32]
r~ wt on 's Rings by Transmitted Ligh
In case of transmitt~d light . .

2t= nA ... (4.89) [For bright rings]

-
and A
2t= (2n ±l) - ,:-(4.90) [For dark rings]
2

For bright rings,

r2
2x- = nA or r2 = nAR
2R

or D= 2 .Jn')...R
or D oc../n .•.(4.91)
For dark rings,
2
r A
2 x R =(2 n± I)
2 2
2 (2n ±l)AR
or r =- - -
2 Pig. 4.3 2 Newton's rings
[tran~rnitted case].
D =.J2 AR x ..j(2.~±1)
f .

D oc .J(2n±l) .,.(4.92)
· b ·h
tral ring 18 .
Th us in case of transmitted light, the cen . s
· t opposit. e to the ring
rig t. The rmgs are Jus
. .
m refl ected lzght. ,
 INTERFERENCE 225

4.14.5 Deter minat ion of Wavelength of Sodiu m Liijht using Newton's Ring

Experimental arrangement is shown in Fig. 4.28

Theory. Let R _be the radius of curvat ure of the surface in contact with
the plate ; -"' be the
(m+n)th dark rings
wavele~gth of the hght used and Dn and Dm+n the diameters of nth and
respectively, then
D~ = 4 nAR and D;i+n =4 (m +n)t-R

D2m +n - Dn2 = 4 mRt-

or
D2 D2
A= m+n n ... (4.93)
or
4mR

Using Eq. (4.93); A can be determined.

ires. Now the
Procedure. First of all the eyepiece of the microscope is adjusted on its cross-w
in well focus. The
distance of the microscope from the film is adjusted at the rings with dark centre
number of fringes,
centre of cross-wires is adjuste d at the centre of fringe pattern. By counting the
ire is adjusted
the microscope is moved to the extreme left of the pattern and the cross-w
of micrometer screw
tangentially in the middle of nth (say 20th) bright or dark fringes. The reading
and the readings of
(attached with eyepiece) is noted. The microscope is now moved to the right
16th) ... rings etc. till
micrometer screw are noted successively at (n-2) th (say 18th), (n-4) th (say
same direction the
we are very near to the central dark spot. Again crossing the central dark spot in the
noted on other side.
reading corres pondin g to ... (n-4)t h (16th), (n-2)t h (18th) ... nth (20th) rings are
Now a graph is plotted betwee n a numbe r of rings
(n) and square of the corres pondin g diameter. The graph
is shown in Fig. 4.33.
2 D2 B ~
,__ D!,+ n _B_ ___r_________ _
Dm+n - n = ~ f I ;)
From the graph,
m CD lf D~+" -d.
The radius ( R) of the planoconvex lens can
obtained with the help of sphero meter using following
formula,
be
"''i:'
~
I"d. 1___ 1__ _

:..-m--+,
R=-
2
1 +_h ... (4.94) J
C
I
I
I
I
I
I

6h 2 'C 'D
n m+n
►
where z is the distance betwee n two legs of the
No. of rings (n)
spher~meter and h is the difference of the reading of
th rings vs. square of the
spherorneter. [When it is placed on e lens as well as Fig. 4.33 Number of
when placed on the plane surface1 diameter of Newton's rings.

of a Liquid
4 _14 _6 Determination of Refractive Index
. • t is performed when there is an air film between the glass plate and
Fust of all experu nen . .
tern is placed in a metal con tamer. The diameters of nth and ( m+ n) th
P1anoconvex lens. The sys
23 2 ENGINEERING PHYSICS - I

4.17 THE MICHELSON INTERFEROMETER

The Michelson interferometer, first intro~uced by Albert Abr:marn ~~elson in 1881, has
played a vital role in the development of Optics and Modern Physics. This [Link] and versati}
instrument was used, for example, to establish experimental evidence for the validity of the
special theory of relativity, to detect and measure hyperfine structure in line spectra, to measuxe
the tidal effect of the moon on the earth, and to provide a substitute standard for the metre in tel'lll:
of wavelengths of light. Michelson himself pioneered much-of this work.

The amplitude of light beam is divided into two parts of nearly equal intensity by partial
reflection and refraction. They are sent in two directions at right angles and meet together by
after reflection by plane mirror to produce interference. ·

Construction

The Miche~son inte~ferometer consists o~ two highly polished front silvered plane mirrors A1i
and~- The nurror M1 is mounted on a carnage and can be moved parallel to itself with the help
of a nucrometer screw. The planes of the mirrors can be slightly adjusted with the fine screw
attached at their backs as shown..in Fig. 4.37. The mirror A1i is fixed.
Movable mirror
'{l(/J//l(((((l((lt/J/////I/ M1
I -----i
(I I
-1- - - - - Mi.

Light L
1,
I I

I I Beam M2
,: splitter0
.>
/ ✓- /
/ /

s /
/
/
Fixed
/ '
/
"------- mirror
/// B
I < /
/
I
G1
•I
I
G2

Observer

Fig. 4.37 The experimental arrangement for Michelson Interferometer.

There are two parallel plates G1 and G2 of same thickness. The glass plate G is semisilvered
1
on the backside and functions as a beam splitter i.e., a beam incident on G is partially reflected and
1
partially transmitted. This glass plate is inclined at an angle of 45° to the incident beam. The glass
plate G2 is called the compensating plate.
A telescope is positioned normal to M1 to receive the reflected rays from mirrors M and Mz-
1
-
working
INTERFERENCE 2] J

·
Light from an ext end ed mo n ochr omatic source S, rendered nearly parallel by a lens L, falls
on
. . . . , is par tial ly
is mcl m~ d at ang le of 45° to the inci dent beam. A ray of light incident on G
G1, which d ray moves
and par tial ly tran smi tted as ray s AC and AB resp ectively. The reflecte
reflected emerge out along
is reflected back along the same pat h and
towards M1 an~ falls nor mal ly on it. It along the same path.
AT. The tr~ mi tte d ray AB falls nor
mal ly on the mirror ~. It is reflected
rays entering the
G , it travels along AT. Since the two
After reflection a~ the bac k surf ace of 1 n to
ved from the sam e inci den t ray, they are coherent and hence in positio
telescope are den
rference und er suitable conditions.
interfere. These two bea ms pro duc e inte

Fundion of Compensating Glass Plate G 2

plate G
0, the ray AC travels thro ugh the glass
After partial reflecti on and tran smi ssio n at
1
enc e of G , the path s of rays AC and AB in
s not so eve n once. Thu s in abs
twice, while ray AB doe 2
thickness as G1, is
hs a glass plate G2, which has the same
glass are not equal. To equ alis e the se pat
'com pen sati ng plate'.
placed parallel to G1 . G2 is call ed the

4.17.1 Types of Fringes

r the image
cts of interference in this case is to conside
The sim ples t wa y of exp lain ing the effe ined at 45° to either ½
of Mi in plat e G1 . In case wh en Mzand M1 are at righ t angles and G1 is incl
er. Now treat the
of Mz in plat e G1 are parallel to each oth
or M ; the mir ror M 1 and the ima ge M; interfere. The pat h
of a thin film giving reflected beams to
plan:s of M1 and M; as two sur fac es
pat tern dep end s upo n :
differences and hen ce the inte rfer enc e
(z) The sep ara tion bet wee n Mi and M;.
(ii) The ang le 0 sub ten ded on the
eye.
surf ace s of wed ge sha ped film.
(iii) The inc lina tion bet wee n the two

(a) Circula r Fringes. Cir cul ar frin ges

allel.
are pro duc ed wh en M 1 and M; arE;_Par Planeof--...........i'
If distances of mir rors Mz and M 1 from the M'2
tion
plate G1 differ by dist anc e t, the n sep ara
between M 1 and ima ge M; wil l be
2 t as
I
ce Plane of
shown in Fig. 4.38. The pat h diff eren
I
Ml
of the
along a circle wit h cen tre C as the foo t
t. The
perpendicular from the eye is con stan
ds an
circumference of this circle sub ten
pat h
angle 0 on the eye. The refo re, the
wn
differences for diff ere nt val ues of 0, sho
0 and 0' in Fig. 1.24 wil l be diff ere nt ; ~ut
same for one val ue of 0. Hen ce a ring
wh ich
ctive
WI
satisfies the con diti on for constru
hic h
· rference app ear s brig ht and one w
Inte fig. 4•38 Formation of circular fringes in
satisfies the con diti on for des truc tive
inte r- Michelson's interferometer
ma tic
ference app ear bla ck wit h mo noc hro
23 4 ENGINEERING PHYSICS I

li ht and a pattern bright and dark rings resembling New

ton's rings is seen. However, these tin
~er from Newton's rings in origin and are called Haid
inger ~pe o~fringes. ~es e are fringes:
equal inclination while Newton's rings are ~inges of e~ua
l optical thickness (Fizeau s fringes), 'Ihe
1

optical path difference for bright and dark nngs are give
n by
2tco s9=n A
[for bright rings]
/1,
2t cos 0 = (2n±1)
2 [for dark rings]
Let the radius of the nth ring be xn and the distance of the
foot of the perpendicular from eye
be L, then for small value of 0, it may be shown that
X
tan 0 = --2!.. = 0
L
The optical path difference for bright rings can be writt
en as

2tcos0=2{1-:}2{1-;i )=HA 2

Obviously, the order of fringes decreases as 0 increases i.e.,

as we move away from the centre.
The fringes are formed at infinitely because the interferin
g rays are parallel.
For successive rings, we may write
2 2 AL2
Xn+l -Xn =-t - ... (4.110)
(b) Straight Bands and Curved Fringes. When mirror
M is not perpendicular to Mi i.e., the
mirror M1 and the virtual mirror M; (image of Mi) are inclin 1
ed, the air film between M and M; is
wedge shaped. The shape of fringes for various values of 1
path difference are shown in Fig. 4.39. In
general the fringes are curved and always convex towards
the thin edge of the w~dge as shown in
Fig. 4.39(a) and (c). The fringes are straight when M actua
lly intersects M; in the middle. Hence,
the essential condition for formation of straight band1s is that
the distance of Mi and M from plate
G1 are optically equal. 1

These fringes are formed near the film and are observed
for small path differences only.
, /Mi

llll li (a) (b) (c)

{(((I
Fig. 4.39 Straight and curved bands in Michelson's interferom
eter.
 INTERFERENCE 23 5

b), the optical path difference for the

(c) ~it e Li~ht Straight Fringes. As show n in Fig. 4.39(
rs. Therefore, if monochromatic light is
plane of mter se~o ~ of M1 and M; is the same for all colou
central white or dark appe ar in the field
repl~ced by whit e light, a few strai ght colour fringes with
the plate G1 is unpo lishe d or polished at
of view. The centr~J whit e or dark depe nds upon whet her
illumination is obtained.
the back. If the thickness of the film is large, a unifo rm

Uses of White Light Straight Fringes

ne~s of trans paren t films and the
The whit e light strai ght fringes are used to find the thick
proc edur e adop ted is as give n belo w :
atic light by
> Obta in strai ght fringes with monochromatic light. Replace monochrom
whit e light.
h is perfectly strai ght , with the
> Note the posit ion of the central achromatic fringes whic
help of micr omet er screw.
e fringe shifts.
> Inser t the thin film in the path of beam towa rds the mirr or ~. The centr
cross wires on it
> Move the micrometer and note the shift of the central fringe by setting the
r M to bring the fringe back to
If tis the thick ness of the film and x the displacement of mirro
their initial posit ion, then
2x= 2(µ- l)t
; then
If corre spon d to a shift of n band s of monochromatic light
... (4.111)
x = nA= (µ - l)t

1bis relat ion may be used to find

(t) the thickness of the film or shee t
ness is know n.
(ii) the refractive inde x of the shee t material, if the thick

r
4.17 .2 Applications of Michelson Interferomete
omatic Source. Usin g the give n
(a{ Determination of Unknown Wavelength of a Monochr of
ted to get circular fringes in the field
mmfuchromatic sourc e, the mirr ors M1 and ~ are adjus
is mad e to coincide with a brigh t fring e
view of microscope. The vertical crosswire of telescope
and the posi tion of mirr or Afi is note d on the scale as 1
x •
le of the micr omet er screw to a new
Now the mirr or M 1 is mov ed with the help of the hand
pass ing throu gh the vertical cross wire is ·
position x and the num ber of brigh t fringes, say n,
the rays due to displ acem ent of (x 2 -x1 ) of
counted. r-Jow the path difference intro duce d betw een
· ... (4.112)
~ =2 (x -x 1 )
2
leng th = n A ... (4.113)
The path difference betw een the rays in term s of wave
From Eqs. (4.112) and (4.113), we have
2(Xz -Xi) = nA
'\ =2 (x 2 - x 1 ) ...(4.114)
or /\,
n
of mon ochr omat ic light.
Equa tion (4.114) is used to deter mine the wave leng th